
Class LB''Srf ( 

Book. J } y 
Copigtitl^?- 



COFmiGHT DEFOSIC 




ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



FOR 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS 



A DESK MANUAL 

FOR 

CLASSROOM TEACHERS 



BY 



ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, B.S., A.M. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS 
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI 



Hetn gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 



Copyright, 191 7, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1917. 



MAY 10 1917 



NortDooU ^rt8B 

J. S, Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



«'CI,.4 4GG652 
1^ ( . 



PREFACE 

The studies which form the basis of this book 
were undertaken, not so much to prove the value 
of the methods, as to test the extent of their use- 
fulness under the conditions existing in the ordi- 
nary school. Illustrative methods in various forms 
have, for some time, formed a regular part of the 
work in many progressive schools, but in some 
quarters the impression has prevailed that their 
usefulness is possible only under especially favor- 
able conditions. A report of these studies was 
first submitted as a Master's Thesis in the Gradu- 
ate School of the University of Missouri. Some 
of the principles upon which these studies are 
based are further discussed in a bulletin recently 
issued by the Manual Arts Department of the 
University of Missouri. The list of projects de- 
scribed in this book includes also many problems 
worked out in Columbia and other towns as a part 
of the everyday program and not as special studies. 
All of the projects here described were carried out 
in the regular classroom by the regular teacher 
under conditions common to the average school. 



VI PREFACE 

The suggestions offered apply to schools which 
are working under the limitations of restricted 
space, scant materials, and a more or less rigid 
course of study. These outlines and suggestions 
are offered, in the hope that it may help to bring 
into all classrooms greater freedom for both 
teacher and pupil, greater" opportunity for the de- 
velopment of resourcefulness and independence 
in thought and action, and last, but by no means 
least, to bring the real joy of activity into some 
classrooms that have known before only mechan- 
ical routine. Grateful acknowledgment is here 
made to the teachers of the Columbia schools for 
their loyal support and enthusiastic cooperation, 
and to Dean W. W. Charters for assistance in the 
organization of the material. 



ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS. 



University of Missouri, 
June, 1916. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHATTER 



I. The Point of View i 

Introduction . . . . . . . i 

^ Illustrative handwork : Its scope and justification 5 
The relation between technical and expressional 

handwork . . . . . .11 

Handwork in relation to general subject matter . 22 
Illustrative handwork and expense ... -25 
Free expression and classroom discipline . . 26 
Criticism and growth ...... 32 

II. Various Forms of Illustration . . . .38 

Posters 38 

Bookmaking . . . . . . -52 

Sandtable representations 57 

Illustrative construction ..... 65 

III. The Selection of Topics for Concrete Illus- 
tration 75 

Topics not suited to concrete illustration . . 75 

Topics well suited to concrete illustration . . ']'] 

Suggested topics in geography .... 79 

Fifth grade ....... 79 

Sixth grade ....... 87 

Seventh grade 94 

Suggested topics in history ..... 97 

Fifth grade 97 

Sixth grade ....... 102 

Seventh grade . . . . . .104 



Vlll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Suggested outline for 
South America 



lustrative methods for 



IV. 



a. Organization based on order in text 

b. Organization based on child's interest 

Lists of Projects Carried out in One Year by 

Various Teachers in: 

Fifth grade ..... 

Sixth grade ..... 

Seventh grade .... 



V. 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

ID. 
II. 
12. 

13- 
14. 

15- 



Selected Projects in Detail 

Geography of Asia 

Development of United States to 1850 

Geography of Europe (construction) 

Geography of Europe (booklets) . 

Review of Early United States History 

Lewis and Clark Expedition . 

Colonial Life .... 

Panama Canal .... 

A Lumber Camp .... 

The Rotation and Revolution of the Earth 

The Courtship of Miles Standish . 

Nature Study Books on Trees 

The Evolution of Methods of Travel 

A Study of Bridge Building . 

A Coal Mine .... 

[6. A Circus Parade .... 
[7. A Planing Mill .... 



VL Teachers' Report with Summary 



VIL A Compelling Motive 
VI n. Reference List 



108 
108 
116 



117 
125 
136 

140 
140 
144 

145 
150 

155 
156 

159 
161 
166 
170 
173 
175 
177 
185 
191 
194 
198 

201 

215 

221 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Lapland Hut 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 
9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 

13- 
14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 



Scotland — Lady of the Lake 

Gold Mining in California 

Valley Forge . 

The Bears' House . 

The Wooden Horse of Troy 

Development of Technical Handwork 

Proportionate Emphasis on Unified and Differentiated 

Matter .... 
Early Days in St. Joseph 
Robinson Crusoe 

Primitive Homes in the Philippines 
Primitive Homes — Cliff Dwellers 
Primitive Homes — Tree Dwellers 
The Sleeping Beauty 
Jack and the Bean Stalk . 
Cuban Industries 

Geography Posters, Grades Four and Five 
History Posters, Grade Seven . 
Hallowe'en Posters. Fifth Grade 
Booklets, Sixth Grade 
Lincoln, Life Story . 
Norman Castle 

Daniel Boone .... 
Booklets on Geography. Seventh Grade 
Studies of Birds. Sixth Grade 
Snowbound .... 
Zinc Mine .... 

Evolution of Travel by Land . 



PAGE 

Frontispiece 
3 
7 
10 

14 
17 
20 



22 
24 
28 
32 
^Z 
35 
39 
40 

43 
46 
48 
50 
53 
58 

59 
61 

62 
64 
66 

68 

70 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



28. Studies in Industrial Evolution 

29. People of All Nations 

30. Mechanical Projects 

31. Station, Signal Tower and Train 

32. Well Sweeps and Sundials 

33. Crane Raising a Submarine 

34. Derrick ..... 

35. Panama Canal .... 

36. Colonial House (Front view) . 

37. Colonial House (Back view) . 

38. Booklets, University of Missouri 

39. Transportation Studies — Brushwor 

40. Pose Studies — Costumes 

41. Statistical Posters . 

42. Pose Studies — Games 

43. The Battle of Quebec 

44. Sawmill and Oil Well 

45. The Landing of Columbus 

46. Industries in Southern States 

47. A Dog of Flanders . 

48. Venice and Rome . 

49. United States before 1850 

50. A Castle on the Rhine 

51. A Dutch Farm 

52. Scenes in Italy 

53. Swedish Hay Cart and Irish J 

54. Dolls in Costume 

55. Holland's Dykes 

56. Lewis and Clark Expedition 

57. Colonial Home Life 

58. Another Colonial House . 

59. Panama Canal and Locks 

60. A First Attempt at Lock Building 

61 . A Lumber Camp 

62. A Lumber Camp and Sawmill 

63. Apparatus Illustrating the Earth's M 

64. Miles Standish 

65. Tree Studies . 



unting Car 



otions 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



XI 



66. 



67. 

68. 
69. 

70. 

71- 
72. 



73- 

74- 

75- 
76. 

11- 
78. 

79- 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93- 



Transportation by Land : 

1. Carrying the Burden . 

2. Single Drag .... 

3. Double Drag or Sled . 

4. Cart 

Transportation by Land : Schooner 
Transportation by Land : Travel by Steam 
Transportation by Land : Electric Car 
Transportation by Land : Automobile 
Transportation by Land : Airship . 
Transportation by Water : 

1. On a Log ..... 

2. On a Hollow Log 
Transportation by Water: Canoe and Rowboat 
Transportation by Water : Greek Galley 
Transportation by Water : Sailboat 
Transportation by Water : Stern Wheel and Horse Power 
Transportation by Water : River Steamboat 
Transportation by Water : Battleship 
Transportation by Water : Ocean Liner . 
Transportation by Water : Motor Boat 
Primitive Bridges. Primary Classes 
Bridges of Various Types. Seventh Grade 
Suspension Bridges. Seventh Grade 
Suspension Bridge. Sixth Grade 
Three Bridges. Fifth Grade . 
Suspension Bridge. Sixth Grade 
A Coal Mine. Fifth Grade . 
Dough Maps and a Circus Parade 
Bunker Hill and Hiawatha 
Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves 
Holland. Dutch Home Life . 
Boonesborough Stockade 
The Simple Life 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

CHAPTER I 

THE POINT OF VIEW 

INTRODUCTION 

The point 'of view is always important. Many of 
our heated and futile discussions, many of our mis- 
understandings and estrangements, are due to the 
fact that two of us have seen the same thing from 
different angles and each has pitied or blamed the 
other for blindness without appreciating the keen- 
ness of his observation. Again, many of our en- 
deavors are blocked and our resources seem to be 
exhausted until we happen upon a new point of view 
which opens up a new mode of attack or another 
avenue of approach and we are able to move forward 
with vigor and success. 

Handwork as a school subject is so new that its 
advocates are still far from agreed either as to its 
subject matter, its methods, or its purpose. Differ- 
ent groups in turn advocate a form which empha- 
sizes marketable skill, a form which allows free rein 
to originality and inventive genius, a form which will 
produce useful articles for home and school, a type 



\ ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

which deals with the immediate interests of children 
and allows them '' to make what they want to make," 
and so on. Reasonable arguments are brought 
forward in support of each of these legitimate but 
conflicting aims, and it seems impossible to meet 
all these needs in a single course of study. Nowhere 
is this confusion so marked as in the elementary 
field, and nowhere is the need for a new point of 
attack more keenly felt. 

Handwork of all sorts is commonly classed as a 
special subject, the work being done at a specified 
time with special tools and material, and frequently 
in a different room under a specially trained teacher 
where the projects undertaken have no direct rela- 
tion to any of the regular classroom work of the 
pupils. This point of view is the inevitable accom- 
paniment of the newness of the subject, but as we 
become better acquainted with the value and possi- 
bilities of the work, we discover the narrowness of 
this view. We have begun to realize that handwork 
is valuable not only for its product in things made, 
but also for the effect upon the maker ; that it is not 
only a subject to be studied for its own sake, but may 
be a helpful method of studying other subjects ; that 
it is not only an end in itself, but that it is also a 
means to an end. 

As soon as we accept the premise that handwork 
has two distinct functions in the curriculum, many 
of our difficulties in organization disappear. If we 



THE POINT OF VIEW 



accept this premise frankly, the problem at once 
divides itself into two general propositions: First, 
the handwork which is general in its application and 
free in its methods without emphasis upon technical 




The Lady of the Lake. Sandtable Illustration. 
Columbia, Mo. 



Sixth Grade. 



processes ; and second, that which is specific and re- 
stricted by commonly accepted professional practice. 
The conditions involved in the former type of work, 
which seeks to develop originality and inventive 
genius through free expression, are radically different 
from the conditions involved in the second type, 



4 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

which seeks to develop skill and accuracy in any given 
process. Both types of work are essential in a well 
rounded course of study, but cannot be taught by the 
same method nor at the same time. The former may 
be, and is largely, a part of regular classroom experi- 
ence under the guidance of the regular teacher, to 
be used chiefly as a medium of expression for ideas 
gained in the study of other subjects. The latter 
deals chiefly with technical processes and the con- 
ditions involved in carrying them out, and must 
always remain the province of the technically trained 
teacher. 

The projects outlined in this book belong wholly 
to the former or expressional type of handwork and 
are further limited to forms of work which are illus- 
trative in character and grow out of the regular or 
traditional subjects in the curriculum. 

Much of the material here used is drawn from a 
series of studies, carried out in the public schools of 
Columbia, Missouri. These studies were carried on 
in regular classrooms under conditions common to 
the average public school. The projects grew out 
of the subject matter prescribed by the regular 
course of study and were made a part of regular 
class work. 

These studies were undertaken to prove : 

(i) That illustrative handwork can be used 
profitably as a method of st'udy by giving the children 
something to do which they will wish to do but which 



THE POINT OF VIEW 5 

cannot be done successfully without a practical 
knowledge of the subject matter to be studied. 

(2) That illustrative handwork can be used prof- 
itably as a method of recitation by requiring the 
children to make something which they cannot make 
successfully unless they have gained clear and defi- 
nite ideas of the subject which has been studied. 

(3) That work of this kind not only has a place 
as a regular form of study and recitation but that 
it can be done without exceeding the limit of time 
allotted to the subject. 

(4) That the equipment and materials needed 
are easily obtainable in any school. 

(5) That work of this kind may be carried on in 
the regular classroom. 

(6) That such methods may be used by teachers 
who have not been trained in the Manual Arts. 

Illustrative Handwork 

Scope and Justification. — In carrying on the 
studies which furnish the material for this book, 
certain educational values, more or less generally 
accepted, have been assumed in justification and 
limitation of the projects undertaken. 

First, it is assumed that varying mental capacities 
demand a variety of means of expression sufficient 
to allow each child to express himself with compara- 
tive ease through at least one medium. 

In a large proportion of schools a pupiFs progress 



6 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

is measured only by what he can say with his tongue 
or pen, utterly disregarding what he might tell with 
his hands. For example, in any given class there is 
likely to be at least one who talks glibly and makes 
a good showing in oral recitations but fails utterly 
in an attempt to write out a connected statement 
of the same topic. There is apt to be another whose 
diffidence makes him fail in an attempt. to talk but 
who can express himself clearly in writing. There 
is likely also to be a third pupil who finds himself 
at a loss in using words, either oral or written, but 
who can '' show you how it was " if given an op- 
portunity to handle tangible material. When, for 
example, this last-named pupil has made a clever 
representation on the sand table, the teacher is apt 
to say to the admiring visitor, '' Oh, yes, John can 
do such things, but he can't do anything else," in 
a tone which implies that John's ability to express 
his ideas through his fingers is of much less value 
than Henry's ability to talk or write. In life outside 
of school we place a premium upon ability to do, and 
it is deeds rather than words which succeed in the 
battle of life. In the classroom where no opportunity 
for concrete expression is offered, the child of the 
third type described above is prone to become dis- 
couraged and to regard himself as such a hopeless 
dunce that extended school attendance is a waste 
of time. If he succeeds in hfe in spite of a scant 
amount of schooling, he is apt to join the ranks of 



THE POINT or VIEW 7 

those who oppose all higher education. It is a good 
thing for such a pupil sometimes to feel a thrill of 
pride in having surpassed his classmates instead 
of always being outstripped by them. Such an ex- 
perience sometimes helps to overcome obstacles in 
the way of his success in other forms of expression. 
His interest in the thing he has made overcomes his 




Fig. 2. — Gold Mining in California. Fifth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

By means of a small lake near the top of the mountain and a rubber tube, a fair 
impression of placer mining was given. 

diffidence, and he tells easily how the work was 
done and what it implies. It is also a good thing 
for all the class to feel that material things and 
the control of them have value as well as has 
book-lore. 

From any point of view it seems but the statement 
of a self-evident truth to assume that the school 
should employ such a variety of mediums of expres- 
sion that each pupil could use at least one of them 
with fair success ; thus, encouragement is given him 



8 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

to try again, and the process of finding himself is 
facihtated. 

It is assumed also that concrete illustration is an 
aid to clear thinking, first to the worker, in that he 
must think more definitely than is necessary for mere 
verbal expression, since.he must literally '' give shape 
to his thought " ; and second, to the observer, in 
that the graphic nature of the illustration brings out 
relationships more vividly and conveys a greater 
sense of reality than is possible through printed de- 
scriptions only. 

Our common acceptance of this point of view is 
attested by the increase in the number and quality 
of pictures used in connection with all forms of 
printed matter. The modern architect adds to the 
flat plans for his house, a cardboard model of it ; and 
to impress the prospective builder still more, he 
models the contour of the grounds in papier-mache 
and gives the tiny house its proper setting. At 
fairs and expositions and in store windows such rep- 
resentations always attract crowds of observers. 
If these illustrations are interesting and helpful to 
adults, they are even more helpful to children in 
whom the power of abstraction is still less developed, 
and the school should eagerly adopt every available 
means to simplify and intensify the educative pro- 
cess. Mark Twain, in an article entitled, '^ Making 
History Dates Stick," ^ sets forth in his own delight- 

* Harper^s Magazine, December, 1914. Vol. cxxx, p. 3. 



THE POINT OF VIEW 9 

ful fashion the value of picture-making as an aid 
to memory, and in semi-serious manner emphasizes 
a psychological truth in his repeated and italicized 
admonition, ''But you must make the pictures 
yourself." 

In the third place, it is assumed that the making 
of concrete illustrations causes the student to read 
with more interest and earnestness when he is seeking 
information for which he has immediate use than 
when he is without such motive ; and that informa- 
tion thus gained and used makes a more lasting im- 
pression than would otherwise result. 

The early reading of children is concerned so 
largely with the mastery of technique, with mere 
ability to pronounce words, that it is important to 
give them, as early as possible, a motive w^hich will 
emphasize the thought which the words convey. 
The child who is trying to make a Japanese house, a 
Dutch windmill, or an aeroplane, turns again and 
again to the printed description to find out how to 
complete his project, and he must read intelligently 
and think clearly before he can reach a satisfying 
degree of success. This necessity and the struggle 
to meet it cannot fail to make a more lasting impres- 
sion than does an ordinary class recitation. 

It is assumed in the fourth place that the necessity 
for giving tangible expression to ideas, combined 
with interest in making things which appeal to the 
worker as worth wMe, develops resourcefulness, 



10 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



both in use of materials at hand and in the search 
for other materials. 

One common criticism of our modern emphasis up- 
on interest as a factor in education is that through its 
use, or misuse, we have made school work so easy that 
children balk at an attack upon any hard problem. 




Fig. 3. — Valley Forge. Sixth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

If, however, the project is one in which the pupil is 
vitally interested because it is on the level of his 
own experience and appeals to him as real and worth 
while, there seems no limit to the energy he will put 
forth to accomplish success. Various materials are 
turned to account and unexpected values are dis- 
covered in them which give to the worker an added 
feeling of power and not only encourage him to ex- 
plore new fields in search of material with which to 



THE POINT OF VIEW II 

perfect his project but "also make him alert to dis- 
cover the various uses to which materials may be put. 
Even though these energies may be directed toward 
ends which have small value from an adult or com- 
mercial point of view, they help in establishing habits 
of thought and action which have broad application 
and carry over into many fields of activity. 

It is further assumed that cooperative effort in 
interesting work tends to develop a spirit of mutual 
helpfulness. 

In ' the ordinary lesson each pupil is concerned 
primarily with his own success. In group-projects, 
ultimate success depends upon cooperation among 
the workers. Each pupil feels a greater responsibil- 
ity for performing his part well when other parts de- 
pend upon it, than when it is purely an individual 
matter. Each member feels a responsibility for the 
group and he is anxious to help the weaker members. 
The occasional delinquent who sees in the group- 
project a chance to shirk responsibility, is apt to be 
reproved and helped in most effective ways by his 
mates. Actual practice indicates, however, that the 
shirkers are greatly outnumbered by those who are 
ready to do more than a fair share of the work. 

Relation between Technical and Expressional 
Handwork. — If we include in the term technical 
handwork all projects which involve technical skill 
on the part of the worker and which depend for their 
success upon the quality of workmanship displayed, 



12 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

it goes without saying that such work to be fully 
successful requires the direction of a skilled teacher 
well versed in the technique of the processes he 
teaches. It is also self-evident that work of this type 
demands a definite time at which the pupil's entire 
attention shall be given to the mastery of the processes 
involved. Such work presupposes a definite project 
through which the pupil shall be taught how to do the 
work in the best and most economical manner as de- 
termined by professional or trade practices, and in 
which he shall be held to as high a standard of excel- 
lence in workmanship as the conditions warrant. 

Work of this sort is usually organized in courses 
involving a certain material or a certain set of tools, 
as leather, metal, cardboard, or bench work, book- 
binding, coping saw work, etc. These courses 
are the special subjects to which reference has been 
made and in many schools are the only forms of 
handwork in use. 

A recognition of other values to be gained through 
the use of handwork in no way belittles the value of 
technical training. It but adds another tool with 
which to make the teacher's work more effective and 
it increases the usefulness of motor activities. It is 
important, however, that the relationship betv/een 
these values be clear in our minds and that each be 
kept in its legitimate field. Handwork for the sake 
of the thing to be made is one thing. Handwork for 
the sake of being able to make, i.e. skill, is another. 



THE POINT or VIEW 1 3 

Handwork for the sake of the personal effect upon 
the worker is still another, and is always important, 
if not the most important. 

When skill of hand is the purpose in view, attention 
must be centered in the actual tool processes and the 
thing to be made is of secondary importance. That 
is, if skill in planing is the thing desired, it does not 
matter greatly whether it comes through making 
breadboards or hatracks, but it is of prime impor- 
tance that the worker handle his plane in the most 
effective way. It is not only important to obtain 
a good result, but it should be gained by the best 
means. When, however, the project in hand is an 
illustration for a geography lesson, its chief purpose 
is to teach the geography lesson in the most efficient 
and effective manner. It is desired only to make 
certain facts and conditions stand out boldly in the 
pupil's mind and to deepen the impression by adding 
muscular sensations to those received through eye 
and ear. Under such conditions the technical pro- 
cess of handwork is of secondary importance and the 
method of holding saw or plane may be passed over 
that attention may be centered in the general effect 
to be secured. 

The great business of little children is to become 
acquainted with the world about them. This in- 
cludes a general knowledge of materials, how they 
behave, what purpose they will serve, and how they 
may be controlled. It seems reasonable therefore 



14 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



that the handwork for the lower grades should deal 
with a variety of materials with which children may 
experiment quite freely in order to gain first-hand 
experience in what can be done with them. 




Fig. 4. — The Bear's House. Training Class. Missouri University. 

The most prominent characteristic of little chil- 
dren is their restless activity and constant desire to 
be doing something. The successful program of 
education must recognize this activity in two ways. 
First, the physical necessity for activity for growing 
children demands an organization of methods which 



THE POINT OF VIEW 1 5 

will provide for such activity as a regular part of 
school work and not merely as rest or recreation. 
Second, even apart from the appeal to the interest, 
the importance and value of learning to do by doing 
would seem to warrant greater emphasis than is 
usually given to motor expression as an effective 
method of teaching. 

Little children, when they first enter school, are 
unconscious of any need for skill and are therefore 
not ready for technical handwork. The desire for 
skill must be aroused through desire for a thing which 
requires skill. Whether a plant label is five inches 
long or misses that measurement by an eighth of an 
inch does not materially interfere with its usefulness 
as a plant label, and the pupil is inclined to attribiite 
what seems to be an arbitrary demand for accuracy 
to the teacher's general fussiness. A spool top which 
will not spin because the stalk is too long, sets its 
own standard of accuracy and not only creates a de- 
sire for better work but suggests the means. It 
seems reasonable that the early projects in handwork 
should be drawn from the field of the child's imme- 
diate interests and should deal with things which he 
wants and is glad to put forth effort to secure, and 
which at the same time will be unsatisfactory to him 
unless they are fairly well made. Such projects 
not only set their own standards of excellence but 
tend to establish habits of success, instead of failure. 

If these characteristics of children are recognized 



1 6 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

in the organization of an educative program, it 
follows that the work for the lowest grades must per- 
mit the maximum amount of freedom in the ma- 
nipulation of a great variety of materials. Courses 
in raffia, paper, clay, or any other single material in 
which empahsis must be placed upon a technical pro- 
cess, cannot fill this requirement, since they offer 
scant opportunity for free experimentation. Neither 
can such courses be justified from the standpoint of 
physical activity, since most of the work may or must 
be done while sitting at the desk. Still less can 
such courses be justified from the standpoint of free 
self-expression, since the nature of the work usually 
demands a method of dictation until processes are 
memorized. 

Such courses, when offered too early, develop a 
habit of dependence upon the teacher's leadership 
and a tendency to wait until shown how to do, be- 
fore any effort is put forth. This attitude is very 
different from that of a group of first-grade children 
who, on being shown a very attractive but simply 
constructed doll house, responded with ^' Oh, I could 
make a chair like that ! I could make a table like 
that ! " a response which indicated a feeling of powxr 
and an expectation of success. Such a habit of 
mind tends to accomplish much more in this world 
than the opposing attitude of waiting for the author- 
ity of a leader before any step is taken. 

To meet' the conditions above outlined, nontechni- 



THE POINT OF VIEW 



17 



cal or expressional handwork may be used in two 
ways. First, through illustrations of various sorts, 
an idea which has its source in the book subject is 
made clearer or more deeply impressed through the 
making of an illustration. In illustrative work the 
current of thought flows from the hook subject to the 
handwork. Second, a 
project, such as that 
of building a store or 
playhouse, may be 
undertaken for its 
own sake. The pro- 
cess of building will 
necessarily involve 
many phases of work 
commonly studied as 
separate subjects. 
The parts will have 
to be measured and 
number problems of 
a practical sort will 

demand solution. Color combinations and propor- 
tions will call into use all the worker's good taste, 
which is but another name for applied art. Inter- 
esting points will arouse curiosity and a desire for 
further knowledge which is to be found in books. 
The books will then be read with a real motive. 
Discussions will arise over many topics, causing each 
contestant to defend his position in the most force- 











ki 



Fig. s. 
Troy. 



— The Wooden Horse in the Siege of 
Third Grade Boy. St. Joseph, Mo. 



1 8 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

ful English he can employ, and he then has " some- 
thing to say " instead of '' having to say something. '^ 
In this second type of expressional work, which for 
want of a better term we may call representative, the 
current of thought flows from the handwork toward the 
subject matter which develops incidentally but none 
the less vitally. 

The early school years belong to the period in 
which, in the words of Dr. Dewey, a " child's world 
is fluid and fluent." He lives in a world of imagina- 
tion in which the real and the unreal are so inextri- 
cably tied up together that he cannot make distinc- 
tions. The Three Bears may be as real to him as the 
members of his family. This would indicate that a 
large part of the handwork in the lower grades 
should consist in the working out of representative 
projects such as homes for storybook friends, and 
make-beheves of all sorts. If these free representa- 
tions are carried on extensively, situations begin to 
arise in which the pupils feel their lack of control over 
the tools and materials they use. They begin to 
wish they knew how to build a better house, or weave 
a better rug, or make prettier curtains. They are 
then ready for suggestions and instruction of a 
technical sort. Representative problems, therefore, 
form a very proper preparation for, and introduction 
to, technical handwork in various materials, in that 
they give to the pupil a first-hand experience with 
many materials and a few simple tools. This experi- 



THE POINT OF VIEW 1 9 

ence generally awakens a desire for further knowl- 
edge and skill, and supplies the motive for technical 
work. While work of this sort belongs chiefly to 
the lower grades, a housebuilding project is capable 
of such varied interpretation that it develops from 
a mere playhouse in the lower grades to a study 
in house decoration in the upper grades. This and 
similar problems are worthy of frequent repetition 
from a different viewpoint. 

These representative problems, which may serve 
as a motive for many forms of traditional subject 
matter, might legitimately be treated in a discussion 
of illustrative handwork. Being especially suited 
to the work of the lower grades, detailed suggestions 
have already been offered in the author's book on 
Primary Handwork, and only such reference is made 
to them here as is necessary to establish the desired 
point of view. The outlines here offered are con- 
fined to illustrative problems which are based upon 
the traditional subjects as commonly found in 
courses of study. It is hoped that their use, which is 
growing in popular favor, will not only add interest 
and force to the traditional subjects as commonly 
taught, but will also make more evident certain glar- 
ing defects in our present methods and help to eradi- 
cate them. Among these latter might be mentioned 
the overcrowding of classes, the lack of activity, 
the inadequate equipment of many schools, and the 
retention of obsolete subject matter. 



20 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



If the principles here outhned are accepted as a 
basis for organization, the relation between technical 
and expressional work might be represented by the 
accompanying diagram. The free work would re- 
ceive the major emphasis in the beginning, gradually 
giving way to the desire for greater technical con- 




FiG. 6. — Development of Technical Handwork. 

This diagram is intended to suggest the relatively large use of free expressional hand- 
work in the lower grades as compared with the emphasis on technical handwork in the 
upper grades. As ability to visualize and to think abstractly develops, the need for 
illustrative projects decreases. At the same time a developing consciousness of definite 
needs demands increasing emphasis upon the various technical processes of handwork. 

trol. The emphasis on technical processes would 
be very slight at first, gradually increasing with 
progress through the grades. This enlarging em- 
phasis upon technical processes would naturally deal 
with definite phases of work ; therefore, the technical 
wedge in the diagram must be divided longitudinally 
to indicate the various subjects which would arise 
out of the earlier use of expressional methods and a 
largely unified curriculum. The grouping of subjects 



THE POINT OF VIEW 21 

in the technical wedge is suggestive only, sufficient 
data upon which to base definite conclusions not be- 
ing available. 

Illustrative handwork has a place all through the 
grades, not only as a means of expression but also 
as a means of impression. Often a rough model, a 
quickly constructed sand table project or a striking 
poster will convey more at a glance and make a more 
lasting impression than can be gained from pages of 
reading or lengthy verbal descriptions. If this is 
true, it follows that graphic expression should be 
accepted as a regular form of study and recitation 
and be recognized as having a value comparable 
with talking and writing. While the field of techni- 
cal handwork must always belong to the technically 
trained teacher, illustrative work, being but a method 
of teaching, is the province of the classroom teacher. 
While nontechnical work may be carried on with con- 
siderable success by any resourceful teacher, it is rea- 
sonable to expect better results from those who have 
been trained with this point of view. In time, such 
methods must become as much a part of the training 
of a classroom teacher as is training in methods of 
teaching arithmetic or music. Until such training is 
generally given, the untrained teacher is not likely 
to experience any more difficulty in the use of illustra- 
tive handwork than she now encounters in teaching 
music, art, physical culture, or any of the modern 
additions to the traditional curriculum. 



22 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



Handwork in Relation to General Subject Matter. 

— The question is frequently asked, '' How much 
time should be given to handwork? " and in answer 
the accompanying diagram suggests the large use of 
free expression through games and plays as the proper 
introduction to school work. In the lower grades, 




Fig. 7. — Proportionate Emphasis on Unified and Dift'erentiated Subject Matter. 

This diagram is intended to suggest the relative proportion of emphasis in the upper 
grades upon well defined subjects, as compared with the comprehensive projects of the 
lower grades out of which these subjects arise incidentally and develop naturally. 

while the child's appreciation of differences is slight, 
a largely unified method of organization meets his 
needs and representative projects may be used almost 
exclusively. But very soon the desire to make 
better pictures, to read interesting stories, to write 
real letters, to measure with ease, creates a feel- 
ing of need for power to control these values and 
a consequent eagerness to be taught the tricks of the 
trade. Meeting these specific needs will gradually 
change the unity of primary work into the differen- 

) 



THE POINT OF VIEW 23 

tiated curriculum of the upper grades mth technical 
handwork as one of the subjects to be studied. 

Illustrative handwork is in no way a substitute for 
technical work, though representative problems serve 
as a desirable introduction to, and motive for, techni- 
cal processes. Illustrative handwork must be re- 
garded chiefly as a method of teaching traditional 
subjects. The time to be devoted to it depends upon 
its value as a method. As the power of visualization 
and abstract thinking increases, the need for concrete 
illustration decreases; therefore, illustrative hand- 
work though still helpful on occasion, may receive 
correspondingly less emphasis in the upper grades. 

In many schools unable to afford equipment for 
technical work, no provision is made for handwork 
of any sort, the entire time being apportioned to the 
various traditional subjects. In such instances the 
use of illustrative methods offers a means of introduc- 
ing some activity into the daily program and giving 
some acquaintance with handwork processes and 
materials without interfering with the time schedule. 
Used as a method of teaching geography, for example, 
the work may legitimately be done in the time 
allotted to that subject. In carrying out the experi- 
mental projects outlined below, especial attention 
was paid to the amount of time needed for illustra- 
tive work. A study of these projects will show that 
practically no extra time was required, because of the 
method used. 



24 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



It may be confidently assumed, in view of these 
facts, that handwork and other activities may and 
should receive a much larger proportion of emphasis 
in the grades than we are accustomed to give them. 






^^1 


1 


w 


Hr ^ 


E 


I^BL- ^:-\-, 


^^^ 




m 



Fig. 



Early Days in St. Joseph, Mo. Fourth Grade. 



If the physical and mental needs of the children in 
the lower grades were adequately met, then in the 
proportioning of work, as shown in the diagram, rep- 
resentative problems such as playhouses and play- 
stores, together with illustrative methods including 



THE POINT OF VIEW 25 

dramatization as well as handwork, would occupy a 
very large proportion of time. This emphasis would 
gradually decrease, giving place to technical instruc- 
tion in different phases of work as these become prom- 
inent in the child's mind and a feeling of need for 
them arises. Thus, the building of a playhouse will 
prepare for and lead to the study of numbers, lan- 
guage, and art, with their many subdivisions, and 
to a technical study of tool processes. The making 
of posters and booklets will prepare for and lead to 
the making of regularly bound, well written and illus- 
trated books in the upper grades. And, further, 
the use of illustrative methods in the study of these 
subjects would serve as the connecting link between 
the unity and freedom of the early work and the more 
technical and differentiated courses of the middle 
and upper grades. 

Illustrative Handwork and Expense. In view of 
the ever-present question of cost, this discussion 
would be incomplete without a word upon expense. 
The necessity for special equipment and tools which 
is incidental to the introduction of all forms of tech- 
nical handwork, is almost absent in the introduction 
of illustrative handwork. In this instance, the 
pupil is expected to express his ideas to the best of 
his ability with the materials at hand. The value 
of his work depends quite as much upon how he uses 
what he has and can find to work with, as it does 
upon what he produces. Varying resources will 



26 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

produce varying results, but purposeful effort is 
sure to develop resourcefulness and independence 
of thought and action, qualities highly desirable 
in our democratic civilization. The use of illustra- 
tive methods, though begun with little or no equip- 
ment, will generally lead to the discovery of ways 
and means for securing what is found essential, and 
in due time open the way for the establishment of 
technical courses in schools not having such work. 

Free Expression and Classroom Discipline. — To 
many teachers, good order still means a quiet room 
in which the pupils never speak or leave their seats 
without permission, where military discipline main- 
tains in the conduct of classes to and from recitations 
as well as in and out of the room. This method 
seemed to have reached its limit in the case of a rural 
teacher who tapped his bell and gave the com- 
mands, " Class in History, Turn, Rise, Pass, Halt, 
Dress the Line " ; all of which one lone pupil did 
his best to obey. To many teachers, the idea of an 
unprejudiced democratic standard of equality is 
interpreted as identity rather than as equality of op- 
portunity, and no exercise is acceptable which does not 
allow or require all members of the class to be engaged 
upon the same sort of work at the same moment. 
'To teachers having such ideals, the suggestion of free 
expression is confused with the Bedlam-let-loose 
type of disorder they sometimes find in their rooms 
when restraints are removed, and it seems impossible 



THE POINT or VIEW 27 

for them to conceive of a happy medium between the 
two extremes. The emphasis placed by the author 
upon the need of opportunity for self-expression, 
and the need of throwing pupils upon their own 
responsibility, is in no way intended to suggest that 
the teacher is to let the pupils do as they please and 
accept any sort of work because it was done inde- 
pendently. 

It takes more teaching and better teachers to con- 
duct work of the type outlined in this book than for 
the ordinary study and recitation method. It takes 
greater teaching ability to guide and lead a small 
group of children who are free to act upon their own 
impulses, even within limits, than it does to control 
a larger group by mechanical methods. It is believed, 
however, that freedom of method is possible even with 
large groups and that the results justify its wise use. 

The difficulties in the way of changing from me- 
chanical to free methods are chiefly in the mind of 
the teacher. She must first convince herself that 
more good is to come to the pupil through learning 
to guide his own actions wisely, than through unques- 
tioned obedience to authority at all times. She must 
convince herself that a busy hum is not disorder 
in a schoolroom where work is being done, any more 
than it is disorder in a factory where machines are 
at work. But she must learn to distinguish between 
the busy hum of a smoothly running machine and the 
squeak of one that needs attention. The school as 



28 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




a workshop is not al- 
ways a quiet plaee, 
but many kinds of 
noise are like the 
squeaking of machin- 
ery and call for im- 
mediate attention 
from the masterwork- 
man. The quiet 
schoolroom, on the 
other hand, may be 
sometimes akin to the 
quiet of the cemetery 
and produce no re- 
sults. 

Having once be- 
come convinced of 
the value and need 
of freedom in school 
methods, it is neces- 
sary to introduce 
changes wisely. Any 
sudden or wholesale 
revolution is apt to be 
disastrous to the best 
interest of all con- 
cerned. Sandtable 
work, for example, 
will be a distracting 



THE POINT OF VIEW 29 

influence when introduced unless it is managed 
wisely. One of two methods may be used, accord- 
ing to conditions. A few trusty pupils may be 
allowed to work out, quite independently, some 
attractive project. Rightly managed, this will in- 
spire others to try to be worthy of a like privi- 
lege. The withdrawal of the privilege is generally 
adequate punishment for those who abuse it. In 
some schools, however, the children are so accus- 
tomed to leaning upon the teacher's planning, and the 
teacher is so accustomed to directing every minute 
detail, that neither would be comfortable if another 
ideal were suddenly imposed. In such a case, if the 
teacher will select a project with which her best pupils 
are more familiar concerning details than she is her- 
self, it will be possible for them to plan together. 
The children will have real suggestions to offer and 
will begin to think and act independently. One 
teacher who tried this method was surprised to find 
her best work in the subjects so treated. 

In the making of posters and booklets it will be 
hard for the teacher described above to accept some 
results of her pupils' efforts when they are not up to 
her own standard, even if the children have done 
their best. She will want to keep the pupil after class 
to do the work over, or will even add a few telling 
strokes of her own pencil to bring out the picture, 
to show the pupil how it should look. She will want 
to refuse to let a pupil use a crude color that to his 



30 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

untrained eye is most beautiful, because it will spoil 
the effect of her exhibit. She will measure her 
success in terms of the booklets and posters which 
she calls the results, and will regard the imperfections 
of any of them more as a reflection upon her ability 
to teach than as an indication of lack of capacity on 
the part of the pupil. Having such a point of view, 
it is not surprising that she yields to the temptation 
to " touch up '' the work of her pupils, particularly 
if it is to be inspected by those in authority or offered 
for comparison with the work of other teachers. 
When we become more concerned for the real devel- 
opment of the children than we are about praise for 
our apparent results, we will realize that our efforts 
are vain unless we can so teach that our pupils will 
appreciate and desire the better things. Anything 
less than this can never be real success. 

Many teachers work upon the theory that if pupils 
are required to act in a certain way or to conform to 
certain standards until a habit is formed, they will 
come to appreciate and enjoy the process and use 
it willingly when restraint is removed. Probably 
every teacher who reads these words will be able to 
recall disappointing instances which will prove the 
weakness of such a theory. The story of the boy 
who, wishing to give his art teacher a present she 
would enjoy, chose " the ugliest picture they had " 
is a true story, not only in the original but in many 
similar instances in which the teacher rejoiced in 



THE POINT OF VIEW 3 1 

empty results. At best the successful operation of 
such a theory can produce but a superficial veneer 
in lieu of real culture and will only add to the lists 
of those who know the names of all the great artists, 
can tell the names and market value of the great 
masterpieces, yet who never feel a thrill over a sun- 
set or notice a beautiful rose, and whose back yards 
are far from being gardens. 

Many teachers who pride themselves upon their 
discipline and ability to control their pupils by sheer 
force of will, look askance upon the enthusiastic be- 
liever in free self-expression and feel sure that all such 
liberty is but license due to the teacher's lack of power. 
The words " must " and " ought " are so prominent 
in their vocabulary that they cannot imagine the 
school program moving cheerfully along by the force 
of compelling motives which are to be found in the 
work itself. When they find a class of genuinely 
happy and joyous children they imagine it is because 
the teacher is entertaining them instead of teaching 
them. 

Normal, healthy children are brimful of joyous 
energy which will find its outlet somewhere. If it is 
suppressed by stern discipline which expresses itself 
in a long Hst of " don'ts," it will bubble out in pranks 
whenever restraint is removed. In such a school 
the casual visitor sees all sorts of fun going on when 
the teacher's back is turned. If such a teacher can 
persuade herself to adopt a new point of view, this 



32 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




boundless energy of the 
children can be turned 
to profitable account in 
regular school work. If 
she can offer to them 
work which appeals to 
them as attractive and 
worth while, they will 
soon be so busily engaged 
upon it that discipline 
will take care of itself. 

Criticism and Growth. 
— If real growth is to be 
secured it must be based 
upon the child's independ- 
ent efforts. The meas- 
ure of his development 
must always be what he 
can do by himself. The 
success of his unaided 
efforts will depend to a 
large extent upon the 
ideal toward which he 
works. It is of vast im- 
portance, theft, that right 
ideals be securely estab- 
lished. Appreciation is a 
matter of development, 
often very slowly accom- 



THE POINT OF VIEW 



33 



plished and often hindered by the use of arbitrary 
standards of excellence. In many instances , a child 
rejoices over a high grade, or weeps over a low one, 
without knowing wherein he has failed or succeeded. 

Class criticism of class work offers an excellent 
means of developing right standards of appreciation. 
When any piece of work has been finished, the entire 
class should sit in 
judgment upon it. 
The wise teacher 
will be careful about 
expressing her own 
opinions, lest they 
be adopted by lazy- 
minded pupils who 
do not want to think 
for themselves, or 
by those who con- 
sciously or uncon- 
sciously wish to gain 
favor. 

In conducting class criticism , the children should 
first point out the things they like. This will give 
the teacher a chance to study the quality of their 
appreciation and will indicate where she should 
place the emphasis in her teaching. It will also fore- 
stall any tendency to laugh at mistakes or to say 
spiteful things. Their attention may then be 
directed to some one or two prominent defects and 




Fig. II. — Cliff Dwellers — Primitive Homes. 
Sixth Grade. Jefferson City, Mo. 



34 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

possible means of improvement. In the next at- 
tempt they should look to see if these defects are less 
marked than in the first effort. One by one the 
various elements which make for success should 
be brought into the focus of attention and studied 
until the children know how those elements should be 
treated. Such a course will bring about a marked 
improvement in the quality of work and an intelligent 
appreciation of the means of success. 

It is a serious mistake to attempt to correct many 
errors or all the mistakes in one piece of work. Many 
teachers burn midnight oil blue-penciling every mis- 
placed capital, period, and comma in composition 
work, and all the pupil sees when the paper is re- 
turned is that he has passed or has failed. When 
he is required to do the work over, his mind is apt 
to be a jumble of vague ideas through attempting 
too much, and his next effort shows little improve- 
ment. 

The development of appreciation cannot be 
hurried, and the teacher must be willing to make 
haste slowly. It is a question of individual likes and 
dislikes. The liking for the crude thing may be 
deepened by being forced to yield to what the 
teacher likes. The wise teacher will study these 
likes and dislikes of her pupils and try to lift their 
taste to a higher level by making the better things 
more attractive, irresistibly attractive. She will 
measure her real progress by the standard of what 



THE POINT OF VIEW 



35 



her pupils like and want to do when left to them- 
selves. 

How shall we grade our success in picture study if 
we measure ourselves by the power of the '^ funny 
page " in the news- 
paper ? How shall 
we grade our teach- 
ing of literature when 
the masterpieces 
studied in school are 
thrown aside for the 
cheap novel ? How 
shall we grade the 
results of our disci- 
pline when our pupils 
transfer their alle- 
giance to our author- 
ity in school to that 
of the ward boss in 
politics ? 

'' There can be no 
teaching where there 
is no learning," says 
Dr. Dewey, " any 
more than there can 
be buying without selling." If education is that 
which changes us, we must be able to point to real 
changes in our pupils or admit that in all our efforts 
we have not taught. 




Fig . 12. — Tree D wellers — Primitive Homes. 
Jefferson City, Mo. 



36 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Some of our educational practices have been based 
upon a theory that education is the acquisition of 
knowledge. We have assumed that the child's mind 
is a clean, blank paper, whereon we may write what 
we will. Or, to change the iigure, in classroom prac- 
tice we seem to have assumed that the child's mind is 
an empty cupboard full of many small compartments 
and that the teacher's business is to supply him with 
numerous facts which he is to store away, all properly 
labeled for use. We have bidden him store away the 
fact that seven times seven equajs forty-nine with 
great care against the future time when a need for 
it will arise. We have drilled and drilled to be sure 
these facts were all properly labeled and in the right 
pigeonhole. But alas, facts fall out of memory as 
do papers out of pigeonholes and sometimes in re- 
turning them the labels are lost or we put them back 
in the wrong place. And so it comes about that 
" seven times seven equals forty-nine," gets mixed 
up with " six times eight equals forty-eight," and 
trouble follows. 

This conception of the child mind, useful and 
truthful as it may be within limitations, fails to take 
into account the lively, dynamic nature of children. 
Another and better conception is that which likens 
the child to a growing plant and the school to a child- 
garden, in Froebel's beautiful ideal. With such a 
point of view the teacher, while not unmindful of the 
importance of facts, is still more deeply concerned 



THE POINT OF VIEW 37 

with the growth of the child, a process which devel- 
ops from within outward, and not by external addi- 
tions. She watches and tends each bud of promise 
that it may come to full bloom. She strives to supply 
the best conditions to stimulate a natural growth. 
She protects from harmful influences and sometimes 
uses the pruning shears. 

Instead of playing the pompous role of dispenser 
of facts, inspiring awe that one small head can carry 
all she knows, she works in the humble role of gar- 
dener. She does her part with wisdom and care, but 
knows the growth must come from within and that 
she must wait with patience for the often slow pro- 
cesses of nature to bring her work to perfection. 

She realizes that all the plants in her garden are 
not of like variety nor of equal strength ; therefore, 
she watches the development of each with individual 
interest and personal care, in the hope that she may 
develop the best in each one to its fullest value. 



CHAPTER II 

VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 

Four general types of illustration are included in 
the suggestions outlined in the following pages: 
posters, illustrated booklets, sandtable representa- 
tions, and illustrative constructions, including models 
and miniatures. 

Posters 

The term " poster '' as here used implies any pic- 
ture which attempts to bring out in a graphic way 
some particular idea. They may well be called 
^^descriptions without words.'' As the advertiser 
strives to catch the eye of the passer-by and impress 
an idea at a glance, so the pupil attempts through 
the poster to express his idea so clearly that "he 
who runs may read." Such pictures may be the 
individual productions of the various members of a 
class or they may be the combined efforts of a group. 
They may be made in several ways. They may be 
freehand sketches, either drawn or painted. They 
may be made up from freehand cuttings and take 
the form of a silhouette. They may be collections 
of pictures cut from old papers and magazines and 

38 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 39 



""'" ■ """""" 






-f# It, 




,-^' :i 



1: 



c,^'- ' 



mimmmm mn'^m* tmwmwm i mW 




Fig. 13. — Crayon Sketches for the Sleeping Beauty. First Grade. 
Columbia, Mo. 



40 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

mounted on a suitable background. In every in- 
stance the essential feature is that the maker shall 
be endeavoring to express an idea clearly. The 



JACK AMD THE BEAM-STALK 




Courtesy of Normal Inslnictor. 
Fig. 14. — Story Illustration in Brushwork. Second Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

educative value of poster making is directly pro- 
portionate to the emphasis placed upon this essential. 
This implies first of all that the pupil must have a 
definite idea to express. The clearer the idea at the 
start the more successful the expression is Hkely to 
be. It is true, however, as stated above, that the 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 4I 

attempt to express in tangible form does tend to 
define and clarify an idea which may be somewhat 
vague at first. The making of the poster offers an 
opportunity for the teacher to judge the quality of 
the child's mental operations as evidenced in the 
vagueness or clearness of his expression. T^his 
imphes also that in the making of the poster the 
pupil must be allowed to express his own ideas freely. '^^ 
He should be thrown upon his own responsibility to 
the fullest possible extent in the choice of material 
and in its arrangement. The teacher who in her 
zeal for showy results directs too closely in these •^- - 
matters, robs the children of the development which 
comes through the necessity of deciding for them- 
selves. 

A striking example of the truth of the above state- 
ments occurred in one classroom. The pupils were 
being introduced to the process of poster making 
and were working with great earnestness. Their 
immediate problem was to show the products of a 
certain country by means of pictures collected from 
various sources. No directions had been given 
except that they were to find appropriate pictures 
and arrange them as tastefully as they could upon 
the mounting sheet. As the posters were finished 
they were put up in the display panel above the 
blackboard for the benefit of the class. One little 
girl had been very zealous and had succeeded in 
finding a large number of pictures. She put her 



42 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

chief treasure, a colored (pink) picture, in the middle 
of her poster and grouped all the others closely about 
it. Before it was finished several other posters were 
displayed on the wall, giving her opportunity for 
comparison. When her own was finished she handed 
it to her teacher with the comment, '^ Mine isn't 
any good. It's too crowded." Perhaps it '' wasn't 
any good " for use in a collection for a school exhibit, 
but it had at least been good for the purpose of open- 
ing one child's eyes to an appreciation of certain art 
values. Perhaps some reader is skeptical and thinks 
the teacher should not have permitted the child to 
produce so poor a piece of work, but should have 
offered helpful suggestions in time to secure a better 
result. Let us see. Suppose the teacher had di- 
rected the children to arrange their pictures but not 
to paste them until her approval was given. Un- 
doubtedly, she would in this case have called 
attention to the overcrowded arrangement and 
the child would have felt that her large collection 
of pictures was not fully appreciated. The teacher 
would also have been quite likely to advise the re- 
moval of the pink picture, the most beautiful one 
in the child's eyes. The teacher's advice, or com- 
mand, would have brought about a better poster, 
but what else? A disappointed, perhaps sullen 
child would have been yearning for the picture she 
had meant to make, while feehng herself unappre- 
ciated and thinking httle of her teacher's taste. In 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 43 




Fig. 15. — Cuban Industries. Paper Cutting. Second Grade. Columbia, Mo. 



44 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

the other instance, which is happily the real one,' 
the child carried out her own idea, found it unsatis- 
factory, and was in a teachable frame of mind. 
Having already risen to a higher level of appreciation 
in the discovery that her work was " too crowded," 
she was eager to receive suggestions for its further 
improvement. 

In our haste for results we are apt to overlook the 
real purpose of our work and forget that true educa- 
tion is, as Dr. Thorndike expresses it, that which 
changes us, and that the external results are valuable 
chiefly as a proof of the inward transformation. Too 
often we cannot, or will not, take time to let the 
child find himself through his own activities, but 
must cover the prescribed amount of ground in the 
given time and get results that look well on the class- 
room wall. 

Poster making and all forms of illustrative work 
should be treated as seriously as the arithmetic 
lesson or any other regular exercise. It should not 
be used as recreation merely, nor only for display 
purposes on visitors' day. If it is used as regular 
work, there will always be plenty of material for 
display when needed. 

Materials. — Pictures of a helpful sort are scat- 
tered through daily papers, discarded magazines, 
and much advertising matter, where their value is 
lost. These may be collected, mounted, and pre- 
served for general and individual use. Freehand 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 45 

sketches with pencil, crayon, or water color may be 
made on drawing paper of various grades. Free- 
hand cuttings may be mounted on bogus or kraft 
wrapping paper. These two papers are cheap and 
easily obtainable and serve well as mounts and back- 
grounds for all sorts of posters. Ingrain wall papers 
serve well as mounts for large posters. 

Subject Matter. — Subject matter for posters 
may be drawn from the various subjects studied, 
particularly history, geography, and literature. In 
history the poster may emphasize some particular 
event or a series of events ; such a series as the early 
explorations in America may be brought out in a 
series of posters (See Project No. V). 

In literature the emotional appeal is deepened 
through the attempt to portray even roughly the 
situations described. In the illustrations for Miles 
Standish shown on page 174 the pupil had to imagine 
himself in John Alden's place before he could give 
Alden the dejected attitude suitable to his state of 
mind while on the way to do his friend's bidding. 
The freehand sketch is especially suitable in the study 
of literary topics dealing with character. ' 

In nature study, pictures of plants and animals 
may be collected and grouped under significant 
heads, such as useful plants and the purposes they 
serve, harmful insects and how to get rid of them, 
domestic animals and how to care for them. 

In geography, the topics of scenery, occupations, 



46 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




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VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 47 

productions, homes, costumes, and many other 
topics, may be studied through the making of posters. 
A single poster may be made to show the products 
of a region, or a series of posters may trace the source, 
manufacture, and distribution of a single commodity. 
For example, a series of posters on iron would show 
a chart map locating the principal iron deposits, 
the methods of mining and manufacture, the variety 
of things made from iron, and the commercial fea- 
tures connected with the distribution of iron products. 
The making of such a series of poster illustrations 
becomes, or may become, a method of study in so 
far as the workers are thrown on their own respon- 
sibility in collecting materials. The results may be 
treated as a form of recitation in so far as they give 
evidence of what the worker has learned concerning 
the subject in hand. 

Class Organization. — Poster making permits a 
wide variety of class organization. Each pupil 
may make an individual illustration for a single 
topic. This gives opportunity for comparison and 
shows differences in conception. The slow pupil 
gets ideas from his brighter mates. Secondly, a 
large topic may be subdi\dded, giving a different 
feature to each pupil, allowing opportunity for 
covering a broad field quickly and giving the entire 
class the benefit of more than any one member could 
accomplish alone. Or, each member of a group may 
contribute a part to a single illustration, calling into 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



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VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 49 

action a community spirit. The main features of 
a subject may be shown in a single poster, or related 
events may be shown in a series of pictures. Such 
a series may be the work of one pupil or of a co- 
operating group. 

Standards and Criticism. — In the making of 
posters first emphasis should be laid upon illustrative 
value. The picture should tell its story clearly and 
well. Emphasis should also be laid upon the art 
values of spacing and color harmony. Spacing is 
especially important in the mounting of pictures. 
A good poster should need very little explanation, 
but such as is given should be printed in plain, well- 
made letters. Few school children are able to print 
well. Poster making tends to make them appre- 
ciate the value and importance of good printing and 
to stimulate them to become proficient. Art ap- 
preciation being a matter of growth should receive 
due attention at every point, that the children may 
absorb the idea that beauty in life concerns our 
everyday affairs and consists largely of executing 
small details in a beautiful and finished way. 

Finished posters should be criticized in a kindly 
spirit by both pupils and teachers, and suggestions 
offered for the improvement of the next set. The 
method of criticism should always look for and em- 
phasize the good points first. This alone will cause 
the quality of the work to rise to a higher level. 
Afl^er the children learn how to find the good points 



50 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



and give a reason for liking t.hem instead of laughing 
at the mistakes of their classmates, it is helpful to 
use a constructive form of criticism, as for example, 
^' John Alden is larger than the trees in the forest'' ; 
^' The letters in the title are irregular '' ; '^ The border 
line is too heavy '' ; and similar comments. 




Fig. 1 8. — Hallowe'en Posters. Fifth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 



In general this method of criticism holds good 
for all forms of handwork. The teacher's opinion, 
arbitrarily given, does Httle to help the children to 
higher independent judgments. They need to be 
taught, Kttle by little, what points to look for and 
what makes them right or wrong. Unless we can 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 5 1 

develop in them intelligent standards of apprecia- 
tion, art education will fail of its purpose and we 
shall encourage a superficial juggling with high- 
sounding terms and a servile dependence upon any 
popular authority. Continued through the grades 
as a method of illustration for general subject matter, 
poster making offers a field in which the pupil may 
apply the technical points studied in his drawing 
lesson. The drawing hour may often be devoted 
to teaching how to get better results in some particu- 
lars in which the work is weak. 
Suggested Applications. 

1. Illustrations to emphasize any point in daily 
lessons which can be more effectively impressed by 
the making of a poster. 

2. In general reviews much ground can be covered 
quickly and effectively through a poster contest. (See 
Project No. V.) 

3. Much helpful reference matter may be col- 
lected from current papers, mounted on uniform 
cards, and filed in an indexed box for future use. 
This helps to develop systematic habits and en- 
courages a public-spirited thoughtfulness for the 
general welfare. 

Points to Be Especially Emphasized. 

1. Choice of material. — Does the poster tell its 
story clearly ? Avoid attempting to tell too much. 

2. Arrangement. — If several small pictures are 
used, do they make a well-balanced page? This is 



52 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

an excellent field for applied design. Avoid crowd- 
ing. 

3. Drawing and color. — Poster making offers a 
field for developing ability in freehand drawing and 
in color harmony. 

4. Lettering. — A very important factor. Poster 
making creates a feeling of need for ability to letter 
well and stimulates progress. Encourage plain 
lettering, well executed. 

5. Margins. — A well-proportioned margin adds 
much to general appearnace. 

BOOKMAKING 

Illustrated booklets as a form of school work are in 
common use and form a helpful accompaniment to 
nearly all book subjects. The interest aroused 
through collecting and sketching illustrations for 
the booklet has great motive power. Binding the 
sheets into appropriate and attractive covers gives a 
stimulating sense of permanent value to written 
work. Too much classroom work finds early lodg- 
ment in the waste basket. Only the buoyant hope- 
fulness of youth can persist in long continued and 
repeated efforts at writing, done only to be thrown 
away as soon as its mistakes have been pointed out. 
The opportunities in bookmaking for incidental 
emphasis on art values are similar to those noted 
above under the head of poster making. 

The successful results to be derived from the 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 



53 



varied opportunities offered, depend largely upon 
the methods used. In many schools booklets are 
made only for exhibit days and special occasions. 
The importance of these occasions demands an 
outward show of success which is often attained 
through strained supervision, wearisome alike to 
pupil and teacher. 
In such cases the 
teacher assumes re- 
sponsibility for the 
final result by se- 
lecting and out- 
lining the subject 
matter, criticizing 
the first draft, and 
requiring it to be 
rewritten until it 
reaches or ap- 
proaches a given 
standard. She 
usually dictates the 
cover design by the same detailed process. The 
pupil struggles to express the ideas the teacher 
has apportioned to him, often with much unwill- 
ingness. By the time the final result is reached, all 
the joy it might have held has vanished, and the 
work is neither a self-expression for the pupil nor 
often a satisfactory example of the standards set 
by the teacher. 



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Fig. ig. — Booklets. Sixth Grade. (See 
Project No. IV.) 



54 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

The making of a booklet reaches its highest edu- 
cative value when the pupil feels the maximum 
responsibility for its success. He should feel that 
he has something to say which is worth saying, some 
information to record which is worth preserving. 
He should be inspired to make his record as accu- 
rate as possible and to preserve it in appropriate and 
attractive form. The work should be treated as a 
phase of common study and recitation and not as a 
means of display. The best results, described later, 
were secured when the pupil was required, before his 
work was inspected by the teacher, to write his de- 
scriptions, select and arrange his illustrations, and 
then fasten his material in an attractive cover. In 
so doing, he felt the same necessity for knowing that 
his statements were true that an adult feels when 
writing an important letter. The mistakes found in 
the finished production were of more serious moment 
than when there was opportunity to correct them. 
As a rule it hurts more to be refused the privilege 
of correcting an error one wishes to blot out than 
to be forced to correct a mistake one does not regard 
as important. (See Project No. XH.) 

Materials. — The use of separate sheets of paper 
of a fair quality and uniform size has many advan- 
tages over the use of composition books. If correc- 
tions are needed, a leaf or two may easily be replaced 
without spoiling the general effect. The various 
cover papers, bogus paper, certain plain wall papers, 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 55 

and heavy kraft wrapping paper all serve well for 
covers. Stiff boards with cloth backs may be used 
by advanced classes. Macreme cord or any heavy 
cord may be used for tying leaves and cover together. 
Paper fasteners serve for temporary work but are 
more expensive and less attractive than the cords. 
Crayon, water color, and India ink may be used in 
making cover designs. (See Project No. XII.) 

Pictures for illustration other than freehand 
sketches, may be found in many waste papers and 
discarded magazines. Very excellent pictures are 
often to be found in advertising material. In one 
town the children made such a thorough canvass 
for material of this sort that a business man said 
he never threw any paper into his waste basket 
without looking to see if it had on it any poster 
pictures that the children might want. 

Subject Matter. — Subject matter for illus- 
trated booklets may be drawn from nearly every 
field of study. Beginning in the lowest grades the 
book may be only a collection of leaves upon which 
are mounted free cuttings or crayon sketches. Later, 
as the children learn to write, names and brief de- 
scriptions may be added. As progress through the 
grades is made, the text becomes more and more 
prominent until in the upper grades it is pos- 
sible to produce well-bound books, carefully written 
or typewritten, and sometimes printed by the 
pupils. 



56 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Class Organization. — Booklet making is of neces- 
sity an individual process, except in the few instances 
where it is desired to have each pupil contribute 
something to a composite production which is to be 
retained by the school. The variations possible 
lie in the organization of the work for the individual 
pupil. His efforts may be directed toward a few 
large projects for which material is collected during 
a long period, or each phase of a subject may be 
treated by itself. These points must depend upon 
the nature of the subject. 

Standards and Criticism. — The points already 
enumerated under the head of posters apply with 
equal force in the criticism of illustrated booklets. 
The standards by which the work of any grade is 
judged should never be so far beyond the develop- 
ment of the pupils that it is impossible for them to 
attain fair success through their unaided efforts. 
Bookmaking should begin in the lowest grade, where 
it need be only the fastening together of a few leaves 
on which pictures have been made or cuttings 
mounted, and should continue through the grades 
with steady progress in form and technique until 
in the upper grades well-bound books are produced. 

While bookmaking serves as an adjunct to various 
regular subjects, adding interest to the study and 
providing a desirable method of preserving useful 
information, the various processes involved in book- 
making are worthy of study as a technical subject 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 57 

which may be organized in a series of progressive 
exercises well suited to the developing capacities of 
the children. In many schools a booklet is never 
more than a few sheets of written work tied into an 
over-decorated cover with a quantity of ribbon, 
this style being used in upper and lower grades alike. 
At least one advanced step in the process should be 
introduced «each year, and the children should be 
allowed and required to use the method repeatedly 
until they master it thoroughly. 

Sandtable Representations 

Sargent very aptly describes sandtable represen- 
tations as pictures in three dimensions. As the 
ordinary picture adds vividness to the printed de- 
scription, so the placing of actual figures adds reality 
to the scenes represented. The necessity for creat- 
ing some tangible representation himself, helps the 
child to visualize the descriptions he reads and 
stimulates his imagination, since he must see with 
" his mind's eye " before he can successfully repre- 
sent. This is a desirable habit of mind and worth 
cultivating, since it is an element of success in many 
fields of endeavor. 

Work of this sort is at its best when the pupils 
are allowed to represent freely their conception of 
the topic. The attempt to express helps to give 
shape to otherwise vague ideas. The quality of 
the work done helps the teacher to measure the 



58 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

pupil's power to grasp new ideas. Sandtables have 
been regarded as suitable only for primary rooms, 
to be used there for play rather than for serious 
effort. All through the grades, however, the sand- 
table picture furnishes a valuable medium of ex- 
pression in geography, history, and literature, not 





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Fig. 2o. — From Cabin to White House. Fifth Grade Class while reading 
the life of Lincoln. 

(The work had been completed some days and was about to be torn down when 
the picture was taken.) 

only adding interest to the study but making im- 
pressions more lasting through the graphic nature 
of the work. 

Sandtable problems may be of two sorts, either 
elaborately planned miniatures which demand 
accuracy of detail, or quickly made represen- 
tations which emphasize a few important points 
for brief discussion. Accurately made miniatures 
are often of great help in explaining perplexing 
details, but their construction requires too much 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 



59 



fi Jti I- 




time to permit 
them to be used to 
any great extent in 
regular school work. 
Illustrations of the 
second type depend 
for their value upon 
general effect. They 
may be of very tem- 
porary construction, 
sometimes beingmade 
in a few minutes and 
destroyed as soon as 
they have served 
their purpose. Work 
of this sort is easily 
correlated with vari- 
ous phases of subject 
matter, particularly 
in history, geography, 
and literature, and 
it may be used as a 
regular feature of in- 
struction without ex- 
travagant use of time 
and with great gain 
in interest. 

Materials. — The materials suitable for sandtable 
work are as varied as the problems which lend them- 




FiG. 21. — Two views of a Norman Castle. 
Grade 6B. Franklin, Indiana. 



6o ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

selves to illustrations of this sort. Real materials 
add somewhat to the realistic appearance of such 
illustrations when they are to be had in convenient 
size. Since the work is representative in character, 
the use of representative materials is also possible. 
Paper may be made to do duty for wood, stone, 
and for forms of animal life. Clay may be used 
for many of these purposes. As a rule, the real 
material or its nearest substitute gives the best 
effect, but the value of the illustration is not de- 
pendent upon the accuracy with which the details 
are carried out. 

Subject Matter. — Topics dealing with persons 
and places lend themselves most satisfactorily to 
sandtable work. Abstract and complicated prob- 
lems are to be avoided. Very familiar topics which 
need no explanation or illustration are often best 
for the first attempts at illustrative work, as one 
important element in expressional work is the neces- 
sity for an idea to express. Beginning with some 
familiar topic upon which his ideas are clear, the 
pupil is better able to judge of his own success. 
Also, it is important always to begin with easy 
things in order to establish a habit of success and 
confidence rather than one of failure and discourage- 
ment. Such projects as representations of home 
life in various parts of the world, historic events 
such as the Lewis and Clark Expedition, geographic 
problems which concern the physical features of 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 



6i 



the land, and scenes 
from literary studies 
such as the Legend of 
Sleepy Hollow, are all 
well adapted to sand- 
table illustration. 

Class Organization. 
— In some quarters 
the graded-school idea 
has been so greatly 
overemphasized that 
no topic seems properly 
presented unless every 
member of the class is 
doing the same thing 
at the same time. 
Since, however, only a 
few pupils can work 
advantageously about 
a sandtable, the class, 
unless it is small, can- 
not work as a unit 
on sandtable prob- 
lems. Except in pro- 
jects which require 
many small features 
which can be made by 
pupils in their seats, 
the work is best carried 




62 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



on by groups. Such groups may be organized with 
special reference to the immediate project in hand, 
or the groups may be definite companies which 
work in turn. The latter plan has the advantage 
of keeping enthusiasm keen, each company usually 
being anxious to get possession of the table and to 
put on its next project. 



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J 



SCHOOLS 

cniriA 




Fig. 23. — Booklets on Geography. Seventh Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

A class of forty was divided into eight teams of five each. The members of each team co- 
operated in collecting and preparing the material for one booklet as regular class work. 

The least desirable form of organization is that in 
which the teacher plans the project with great defi- 
niteness and dictates and supervises the particular 
contribution of each child. Methods of this sort 
relieve the pupil of the necessity of thinking for him- 
self. The most helpful sandtable projects are those 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 63 

made quickly to illustrate some topic under immedi- 
ate discussion. It is also helpful to treat the work 
as a form of recitation -and allow a group of pupils 
to model a contour map, for example, while the rest 
of the class work upon some other phase of the sub- 
ject, such as posters showing costumes, homes, or 
products of the same country. 

Many teachers fear to attempt sandtable work 
lest the novelty prove distracting and disturb the 
discipline of the room. If a few trusty pupils 
are allowed to build interesting pictures on the 
table, others will wish to be worthy of the same 
privilege and the work may be used as a spur to 
better behavior. The first project or two will, 
no doubt, be watched with intense interest by 
those at their seats, but this fact offers no argu- 
ment against the work, and the wise teacher will 
turn the interest to account as a lever of control. 
The novelty will soon wear off, and after that, work 
at the sandtable will be no more disturbing than 
work at the blackboard. 

Standards and Criticism. — In sandtable work 
the chief emphasis should be placed upon effect. 
In some problems this may demand considerable 
attention to detail, but quite as often the desired 
effect may be gained through a very temporary 
structure, quite crudely put together. Children 
should be led to appreciate the difference between 
the temporary structure and the crudity of careless 



64 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



work. In an elaborate structure, planned to be 
made by the children under supervision, there is 
more danger of careless work than in the project in 
which they are allowed to work out their own ideas 

to the best of their 
ability. The results 
of such work may 
be crude, but they 
seldom indicate 
carelessness. Poor 
work in an elabo- 
rately planned pro- 
ject may come from 
the pupil's failure to 
grasp what is ex- 
pected of him, caus- 
ing him to work 
blindly. When the 
responsibility rests 
upon the pupil, 
though his ideas 
may be crude, he 
knows what he is 
trying to do and to that extent works intelligently. 
If the problem is well chosen, interest in it creates a 
desire for success. 

Much emphasis should be placed upon speed in all 
sandtable projects, that the attention of the workers 
may be held to the main points to be illustrated, and 




Fig. 24. — Studies of Birds. Sixth Grade 
Class. Columbia, Mo. 

These illustrations were memory sketches in 
water color after the bird and its habits had been 
thoroughly studied. Each pupil wrote upon seven 
or eight birds. Each description included a selected 
quotation. 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 65 

may not become so engrossed in minor details that 
they lose sight of the main issue. 

As each project is finished it should be criticized 
by pupils and teacher, and after favorable comment 
upon its strong points, suggestions should be offered 
for the improvement of certain features likely to be 
met again. As a rule more will be gained by several 
projects involving similar features following each 
other closely, than in strained efforts to bring one 
project to a high degree of excellence, though the 
temper of the class must be considered in deciding 
such questions. (See Project No. XVII.) 

Illustrative Construction 

Closely related to picture making by posters and 
on the sandtable, is the construction of miniatures 
and models of interesting objects and mechanisms, 
such as the cotton gin, the water wheel, the bucket 
conveyer, etc. Reading descriptions of these things 
and looking at pictures of them is interesting and 
enlightening. The knowledge so gained may be 
clear and definite in some cases, but is apt often to 
be vague and soon forgotten. The attempt to make 
a model of the thing described sends the pupil back 
to the description to read again and again until he 
has a clearer mental picture. The attempt to 
" make it work " emphasizes many mechanical 
principles, and makes the idea still clearer, even 
though the work may be very roughly and crudely 



66 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

done. Such attempts usually clear up the maker's 
idea to such an extent that he can point out the 
deficiencies in his own work and show how it should 
be made were he possessed of the proper materials 
and tools, or of sufficient skill, or of time in which to 
repeat his effort. It needs no argument to prove 




Fig. 25. — Snowbound. Sixth Grade Class. Columbia, Mo. 

that a crude attempt coupled with such a state of 
mind has some advantages not to be found in a 
model which is a mere copy of another person's work 
made under dictation and without independent 
thought, even though such model were finished with 
great precision. 

It is necessary to draw a sharp distinction between 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 67 

construction of this sort and the usual work of the 
school shop in which the mastery of technical pro- 
cesses is the purpose. Whatever knowledge the 
worker may have of technical processes will add greatly 
to the success of his representation, and it is highly de- 
sirable that, as far as possible, such tools as he has 
should be used in a right way. He should not know- 
ingly be permitted to drive screws with a chisel 
nor be allowed to form habits which will have to be 
broken later, but the reference to tool processes may 
be incidental to the larger purpose. In schools 
where instruction in shop methods is given, the con- 
struction of miniatures and models for illustrative 
purposes gives excellent opportunity for testing the 
extent to which a pupil can use his technical knowl- 
edge independently in a project which he plans and 
executes on his own responsibility. In schools where 
technical instruction is not given, illustrative con- 
struction gives opportunity for experimenting with 
tools and materials and gaining much first-hand 
knowledge at the time when the tinkering tendencies 
are strong in most boys. 

Some schools do no handwork at all, arguing that 
it is better to do nothing than to do the wrong thing, 
but the constructive instincts are too important to 
be overlooked as factors in the educative process. 
While it is a serious mistake to pretend to be teach- 
ing technical processes as such unless they are rightly 
taught, much value comes from experimenting with 



68 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

materials in a way which gives the worker first-hand 
acquaintance with their characteristics and makes 
him feel his lack of control over them. The harm 
comes, not through his crude effort, which he recog- 
nizes as crude, but through the formation of bad 
habits which he has been taught or allowed to be- 





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Fig. 26. — Zinc Mine. Summer Training Class. Missouri University. 

lieve are correct professional methods of procedure. 
Free experimentation with materials under proper 
encouragement generally makes the worker conscious 
of his lack of control of both tools and materials. He 
is then in a teachable frame of mind, eager for the 
help of a master, and willing, when opportunity offers, 
to perform the drill work necessary to acquire skill 
in any process. 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 69 

Some construction is usually required with any 
sandtable project, but many illustrative construc- 
tions may be made without reference to the sandtable. 
Models of machines and tools, representations of 
different types of houses and styles of dress may be 
included. Opportunity for proper correlation of 
this sort of work comes only occasionally, and it 
may often be done out of school hours and offered 
as a special contribution to the class by the maker. 
Once or twice a year some large problem, such as 
the evolution of travel, described later, may be taken 
up with advantage by an entire class. 

Materials. — Any material which will serve the 
purpose may be used in illustrative construction, 
since little emphasis is placed upon technique. Wood, 
clay, and cardboard serve a variety of purposes. 
A few of the most necessary materials, such as wood 
scraps, cardboard, paper, cloth, and nails, with ham- 
mer and saw, may be kept always on hand in the 
classroom. For some projects a small amount of 
some particular material may be needed, which the 
worker will take pleasure in providing for himself. 
One boy, for example, whose part in the making of a 
Dutch farm was to provide the windmill, bought a 
mechanical toy in order to secure the spring which 
was needed to make his windmill turn. 

Subject Matter. — The topics which may be 
helpfully illustrated by construction belong chiefly 
to the field of industry. Machines and tools, their 



70 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




evolution and operation, 
costumes, utensils, and 
vehicles of different 
peoples, and similar 
topics, are full of inter- 
est and may, with ad- 
vantage, be constructed 
with considerable care, 
to be passed on to future 
generations of pupils, 
each class adding some- 
thing to the collection. 
The attempt to work 
out such constructions 
sets the maker to study- 
ing the secrets of their 
mechanism. Even 
though his project may 
not be highly success- 
ful, he is bound to gain 
some first-hand experi- 
ence with physical laws 
and mechanical princi- 
ples which helps in de- 
veloping what we some- 
times call " mechanical 
intelligence. ' ' That this 
quality of mind seems to 
be more common in 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 7 1 

boys than in girls is probably due in large measure 
to the fact that boys have greater opportunity for 
and receive more encouragement in this sort of 
tinkering. Home-made apparatus for school use 
may also be included in this list of things to make. 
(See Project No. X.) 

Class Organization. — Projects in construction 
permit a great variety of class organization. In 
large undertakings, the representation of the Panama 
Canal on the sandtable, for example, the work will 
require cooperative efforts under the direction of a 
leader or foreman. Many problems will need to 
be studied out together by the children, and since 
it is impossible for many children to work about the 
sandtable at the same time, the work must be di- 
vided among groups, each group responsible for a 
definite part of a common plan. Not least among 
the advantages to be derived from work of this sort 
is the opportunity it gives for organization and team 
work among the pupils. 

In problems such as representing characteristic 
modes of travel in different countries, or the dressing 
of dolls in characteristic costumes, the different 
phases of the work are quite distinct and may be 
individual projects. Work of this sort may often 
be done at home. 

Standards and Criticism. — In constructions, as 
in sandtable problems, the emphasis should be upon 
effect and illustrative value. Technique is, in 



72 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

general, of secondary importance, but should receive 
more emphasis in models of a somewhat permanent 
character than is necessary in sandtable projects 
which serve their purpose almost by the time they 
are finished. Such a project as the model of a cotton 
gin, which is to be examined by many people, should 
be made well enough to bear inspection. In all free 
work of this sort a sharp distinction should be drawn 
between the crudity of work in which the maker has 
carefully done his best to express an idea and the 
crudity which comes from the careless worker who 
thinks anything is good enough if he can get it ac- 
cepted. 

The Study of Industries. — The common industries 
of the present day offer another rich field of study 
in which the making of miniatures and models adds 
vitality to the work. Such informal study gives a 
general acquaintance with various kinds of work 
which are being done in the world. Such knowledge 
is the first step toward vocational guidance. Prob- 
lems of this sort are well suited to grades five, six, 
and seven, and form a helpful adjunct to the school 
excursion. If some sort of representation is at- 
tempted before the excursion is made, it increases 
the keenness of the interest and observation of the 
pupils, particularly in details with which they have 
had trouble. If the excursion is made first, the 
attempt to give concrete expression to the ideas 
gained impresses them more deeply and often sends 



VARIOUS FORMS OF ILLUSTRATION 



72> 




74 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

them back to observe again to clear up vague im- 
pressions. The representation may sometimes be 
a model of some one machine or feature of a process. 
Again it may show the entire plant in miniature and 
the relationship of the various machines and pro- 
cesses. The lack of emphasis on technique allows 
free play for initiative and the children are apt to 
produce more ingenious models than any one teacher 
could suggest.. Incidentally much information which 
is helpful later on when technical work is begun, is 
gained from handling tools and material. Topics 
such as the following will awaken keen interest in 
the middle grades and offer profitable problems in 
construction. 

Any local industry. 

A flour mill. 

A planing mill. 

An ice plant. 

Brick-making processes and products. 

A telephone system. 

United States mail service. 

Bridges of various types and uses. 

Canal locks. 

Elevators. 

Electrical apparatus. 

Motors of various sorts. 



CHAPTER III 

THE SELECTION OF TOPICS FOR CONCRETE 
ILLUSTRATION 

(a) Topics Not Suited to Concrete Illustration. — 

The field of concrete illustration is limited by the 
nature of the topics studied. Such illustrations are 
not equally valuable for all topics. Topics which 
cannot be adequately represented without complex 
details are not desirable for concrete illustration 
because the attention of the worker is apt to become 
so entangled in the details that he loses sight of the 
main issue. The thing he produces is apt to be so 
incomplete that it gives a wrong impression. Such 
topics also require an- amount of time dispropor- 
tionate to their value. For example, in illustrating 
the evolution of navigation, though models of simple 
types of boats can be made well enough to give a good 
idea of their character, children could not, even at 
considerable expense of time, make a model of a 
modern steamship which would show more than its 
general proportions. Good pictures would, therefore, 
convey a much clearer idea of the details of such a 
structure. 

75 



76 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 77 

Topics in which the chief values hinge upon ques- 
tions of poHcy, time, speed, or other intangible or 
abstract ideas, are not apt to be greatly aided by 
concrete illustrations. Thus, for example, in study- 
ing the causes of the Revolution, since the subject 
matter deals chiefly with differences of opinion be- 
tween England and the Colonies, it does not furnish 
topics which lend themselves to concrete illustration. 

Topics which involve places and processes with 
which the workers are very familiar and which form 
an actual part of their daily lives do not need illus- 
tration. The actual making of a small amount of 
butter, for instance, might be very enlightening to 
a group of city children, but it would be a waste of 
time for a rural group well versed in the actual 
methods. 

As a partial exception to this last rule, first at- 
tempts at illustration should deal only with topics 
with which the children are comparatively familiar, 
since free expression implies an idea to be expressed. 
This exception applies with special force when illus- 
trative methods are first introduced into intermediate 
grades where children are old enough to be self- 
conscious and shy about expressing themselves. In 
such instances the familiar topic will seem easy and 
give them confidence in themselves. It will also 
make them better able to measure their own success. 

(b) Topics Well Suited to Concrete Illustration. — 
In general, topics which have to do with persons and 



78 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

places and which involve some activity are made 
clearer by concrete illustration. As examples we 
might take the story of Daniel Boone or a descrip- 
tion of home life in pioneer days. In such illustra- 
tions the figures may be placed in significant relations 
to each other. They may be moved about and made 
to assume characteristic attitudes and so provide a 
sort of picture in three dimensions. Such a repre- 
sentation usually carries with it a greater atmosphere 
of reality than is possible with the picture in two 
dimensions. Such representations are particularly 
helpful in the study of topics which deal with con- 
trasts between our present habits and customs and 
those of other times and places. They are helpful, 
also, in studies which deal with mechanical apparatus. 

The following tables contain a selection of topics in 
geography and history which are suitable for concrete 
illustration. These topics are taken from the texts in 
use in the Columbia schools in the grades indicated, 
at the time the experimental studies were in progress. 

Many topics may be illustrated in a variety of 
ways. Appropriate forms of illustration are indi- 
cated after each topic or group of topics. (See note, 
p. 79.) In no single instance would it be desirable 
to use all or even a large percentage of the illustra- 
tions listed. The entire list is offered as a suggestion 
for the selection of topics and in the hope that it may 
be helpful to the busy teacher who has scant time to 
study out the many problems incident to her work. 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 79 

Following the detailed list of topics is given a 
type of outline for the use of illustrative methods as 
appKed to the geography of South America. This 
outline may be modified to suit other topics and the 
conditions of individual classes. 

Topics for Illustration 
geography 

Suggested list of topics drawn from Tarr and McMurry's 
New Geography, Book II, with one or more suitable forms 
of illustration for each. Fifth grade, topics 1-94; Sixth 
grade, topics 95-194; Seventh grade, topics 195-243. 

The letters indicate the form of illustration.^ 

Pages 

1. Relief map of North America : General outlines 

only; for study of drainage, effect of 
mountains on winds and rainfall, loca- 
tion of glacier, modification of moun- 
tains, etc. (S.) 5-12 

2. Plants of North America. In series according to 

sections (P. B.) 13-22 

3. Animals of North America (P. C.) 13-22 

4. People of North America (P. B. S.) 22-26 

General facts for United States 26-30 

5. Color maps and charts showing 

centers of population 
farming regions 
mining regions (P.) 

^ P . — Poster, including all maps and charts; B. — Illustrated book- 
let; S. — Sandtable representation; C. — Construction in various ma- 
terials, including clay modeling. 



8o ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

New England 

Pages 

6. Relief map, showing vegetation (S.) . • . . 31-32 

7. Occupations 

lumber camp 33^35 

quarry 35-36 

fisheries 37-38 

farming and dairying (P. B. S. C.) • . • . 38-39 

factories and water power 40 

making paper 41 

making cloth 42 

making shoes (P. B. C.) 43 

8. Cities, illustrated descriptions (B.) . . . . 44-46 

location on sand and color maps (P. S.) 

9. Products — in review (P.) 33-44 

10. Product map — Samples of products fastened 

to map 

Middle Atlantic States 

11. Relief map, showing vegetation and products 

(S.) 48-50 

12. Occupations 

fishing — oyster dredges 51 

mining 

salt . 53 

coal 54 

petroleum 56 

iron (P. B. S. C.) 56-57 

manufacturing 59 

pottery, glass, etc. (P. B. S. C.) 

cloth (P. B. C.) 60 

iron and steel (P. B.) 58 

13. Product posters, showing products and by- 

products (P.) 51-60 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 8] 

Pages 

14. Cities, typical features, as Brooklyn Bridge, 

sky-scrapers, etc. 

Famous buildings 62-69 

Capital City (P. B.) 67 

Erie Canal and locks (P. B. S. C.) . . . . 65 

Southern States 

15. Relief map, showing agricultural processes 

(S. C.) ■ 71 




Fig. 30. — Bi-plane, Battleship, Clock ; Derrick. Sixth Grade. Humboldt 
School, St. Joseph, Mo. 

16. Occupations "* 

cotton plantation 74-75 

sugar plantation 75-76 

rice field 76 

tobacco field (P. B. S. C.) 77 

17. Products in review showing products and by- 

products (P.) 73-80 

Charts showing increase in production (P.) . 81-82 

G ' 



82 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

i8. Cities typical features (P. B.) » . . . . 81-90 

19. Central States — color map (P.) 

Relief map, showing location of cities and 

typical industries (S.) 92 

20. Products and by-products 93-1 1 1 

corn 95^96 

wheat 96 

cattle 99-101 

lumber 102 

iron 103 

oil 103 

copper (P. B. S. C.) . • 105 

21. Manufacture and Commerce 1 06-1 16 

Review of manufactured products 

Types of transportation (P. B. S. C.) . . . 106-116 

Western States 

22. Relief map showing cities and railroad lines (S.) 1 18-122 

23. Occupations 

mining 

gold . ' 122 

silver "... 123 

copper 124 

coal and oil (P. B. S. C.) 125 

24. Lumbering big tree region (P. B. S. C.) . . 125-127 

25. Agriculture 

methods of irrigation (P. B. S. C.) . . . 129-133 

varieties of fruits (P. B.) 131-132 

stock raising (P. B. S. C.) 133-134 

26. Transportation 

ships 139-141 

rafts 141 

railroads (P. B. C.) 136 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 83 

27. Typical homes 

Pueblo Indians ..... o ... . 142-143 

Cave dwellers 143 

Sheep ranch (P. B. S. C.) 134 

Noted features 

28. Yellowstone Park (P. B.) 143-144 

29. Big tree region (P. B. S.) 127 

30. Yosemite Valley (P. B. S.) 145 

31. Grand Canyon of Colorado (P. B.) . . . . 145 

32. Alaska — color map (P.) 148 

33. Relief map, showing glacier (S.) 148 

34. Occupations 

fishing — showing kinds of fish .... 1 50-1 51 
mining — placer mine (P. B. S.) . . . . 151-152 

Porto Rico and Cuba 

35. Relief maps (S.) . 153 

36. Color maps — showing relation to continent 

(P-) X53 

37. Occupations 

sugar plantation 153 

tobacco plantation (P. B. S.) 153 

fruits (P.) 153-154 

T,^. Native house (P. B. S. C.) 153 

Panama Canal Zone 

39. Canal and locks (P. B. S. C.) 155 

Hawaiian Islands 

40. Relief map (S.) 158 

41. Native houses (P. S. C.) ....... 156. 

42. Population — nationahties (P.) 156 

43. Products and by-products (P.) 157 



84 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Philippine Islands 

Pages 

44. Relief map of Luzon (S.) 159 

45. Color map of group (P.) 159 

46. Products and by-products (P.) ..... 159 

47. People and houses (P. B. S. C.) 159-160 

48. Farming methods and tools (P. B. S. C.) . . 160 

British Possessions 

49. Historical features (B.) . 162 

50. ReUef map (S.) 161 




Fig. 31. — Station, Signal Tower, and Train. Sixth Grade. Humboldt School, 
St. Joseph, Mo. 

51. Color map (P.) 161 

52. Native animals, (P. B. S. C.) 163 

53. Lumbering (P. B. S.) 163 

54. Fishing (P. B. S.) 164 

55. Seal hunting (P. B.) 165 

56. Chart of farm regions (P.) 165-166 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 85 

Pages 

57. Products (P.) 165-166 

58. Transportation 

Railways and waterways (P.S.C.) . = . 167 

59. Home of Eskimos (P. B. S. C.) 170 

Mexico 

60. Historical features (B.) 171 

61. Relief map, showing typical homes (S.) . . 1 71-173 

62. Color map (P.) 

Irrigated fields (S.) 173 

63. Products 

methods of production I73~i75 

methods of manufacture 
methods of transportation (P. B.) 

64. Adobe house (C.) 174 

65. Coffee plantation (P. B. S.) 175-176 

66. Cities located on relief map (S.) . . . . 177 

67. Government (B.) 175 

Central America 

68. Color map (P.) 171 

69. Products (P.) 177 

West Indies 

70. Color map (P.) 178, 152 

Products 179 

Statistical review of North America (P.) . . 181-197 

71. Relative production of different sections 

shown in miniatures in proper propor- 
tion, as sacks of wheat, baskets of corn, 
etc. (P. C.) 

South America 

72. Rehef map, showing physical features, vege- 

tation, occupations, towns (S. C.) . . 237 



86 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

73. Color charts, showing 

winds 214 

rainfall 211 

temperature 238 

vegetation — forests, prairies, arid regions 

(P.) • 238-239 

74. Animals (P. B. C.) 239-240 



U 



ui. 



t^^fi 



Fig. 32. — Well Sweeps and Sun Dials. Sixth Grade, Humboldt School, St. 
Joseph, Mo. 

75. Natives (P. B.) 241 

76. Native houses (S. C.) . . . . . . . . 247, 246 

77. Historical features (P. B.) 241 

78. Countries, color map, showing outlines (P.) • 237 

79. Products and by-products of each (P.) . . 244-255 

80. Cultivation and manufacture of rubber 

' (P. B. S.) 244 

81 . Farming methods in contrast to United States 

(P. S.) 246 

82. Cultivation of cocoa (P. B.) 251 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 8 J 

Pages 

8S' Mining methods in contrast to United States 

(P- S.) 253 

84. Cities — located on color map and on relief 

map (P. S.) 245-255 

85. Government of countries (B.) 245-253 

General Geography 

86. Apparatus showing motions of earth (C.) . 198-199 

87. Charts of zones (P.) 200-202 

88. Charts for winds (P.) 206-210 

Charts for rains (P.) 210-217 

(Experiments in evaporation, condensation, 

etc.) 

89. Charts for ocean currents (P.) 218-223 

experiments (C.) 

90. Charts for distribution of temperature (P.) . 224-226 

91. Animals — by zones, by continents (P. B. C.) 227 

92. Plants — by zones (P.) 228 

93. People — charts for races (P. B.) .... 231-234 

94. ReHgions of world (B.) 233 

95. Comparisons of climate and vegetation in 

hot country 229 

cold country 227 

moist country 228 

dry country (S.) 229 

Europe 

96. Color map showing countries (P.) . . . . 257 

97. Chart maps showing 

coal fields 259 

glacial region 260 

population 261 

winds and rainfall (P.) . 262 



88 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

British Isles 

Pages 

98. Relief map (S.) . 263 

99. Color charts showing latitude in relation to 

United States (P.) 263 

100. Historical features (B.) 263 

10 1. Charts showing 

winds and rainfall , 264 

climate (P.) 264 

102. Farming and farm products (P. B. S.) • • • 265 

103. Fishing industry (P.) 266 

104. Mining industries 267 

coal fields and output (P.) 

tin and other materials (P. B.) . . . . 267 

105. Manufacturing interests (B.) 267 

cotton and woolen goods (P.) 268 

iron and steel (P.) ........ 269 

106. Cities on relief map (S.) 271-274 

107. Interesting things about London (P. B.) . . 272 

108. Country scene in Ireland (P. S.) .... 270 
Irish jaunting car (C.) 

109. Cultivation of flax and manufacture of linen 

(P. B. S. C.) . . . = 271 

no. Typical scenes in Scotland (P. S.) . . . . 274 

111. Scotch costume on doll (C.) 

112. Government of Great Britain (B.) . . . . 276 

113. Review of products (P.) 277 

114. Famous places and people of Great Britain 

(P=B.) 2V6 



Holland 

115. Sand map showing dikes (S.) 277 

116. Story of the dike building (B.) 277-278 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 89 

Pages 

117. People of Holland (P. B.) 278 

Costumes on dolls (C.) 

Houses on sandmap (S. C.) 
Dog cart (C.) 

118. Occupations (B.) „ . 278 

Farming (P. S.) 

Manufacturing (P. C.) 

Use of windmills (P. S.) 279 

119. Commerce (P. B.) 280 

120. Products (P.) 270-2S0 

121. Famous places, people, and pictures (P. B.) . 280 

Belgium 

122. Historic features (P. B.) 281 

123. Products (P.) 282 

France 

124. Relief map with cities (S.) 283-284 

125. Historic features (P. B.) 283 

126. Products (P.) 284 

127. Vineyards (P. S.) . 284 

128. Processes in silk manufacture (P. B.) . . . 285-286 

129. The city of Paris (P. B.) 287-288 

130. Government of France (B.) 290 

Spain 

131. Historic features (B.) 290 

132. Relief map (S.) 291 

133. Occupations 292 

grazing (P.) 292 

mining (P.) 292 

134. Customs — games (P. B.) . • . . • . 293 

ox-cart (P. C.) 292 

135. Cities on relief map (S.) 294-295 



90 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



Scandinavia 

Pages 

136. Relief map (S.) 295 

Color map (P.) 295 

137. Chart showing relative population of coun- 

tries (P.) 295,424 

138. Historic features (B.) 296 



'••r^ 



-¥- 



Fig. 33,. — Crane Raising a Submarine. Sixth Grade. Humboldt 
School, St. Joseph, Mo. 



139- 



140. 



141. 



People — dress (P. B. C.) 296 

houses (P. S. C.) 296 

Industries — lumbering 297 

fishing 297 

mining 298 

dairying (P. B. S. C.) 299 

Compare Danish farms with those of Western 

United States (P. B. S.) 299 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 91 

Russia 

Pages 

142. Comparative size (P.) 302 

with Europe 
with own state 

143. ReUef map 256 

with variety of vegetation (S.) 
Typical homes (C.) 
Typical occupations (P. S.) 

144. Government (B.) 304 

145. Occupations 

lumbering 304 

farming — show methods 304 

mining — compare volume (P. S.) . . . 305 

146. Interesting features (B.) 

costumes (C.) 304 

vehicles (C.) ' 307 

147. Products (P.) 304-307 

148. Cities — on relief map (S.) 306-307 

149. Famous buildings (P. B.) 306 

German Empire 

150. Color map of Central Europe (P.) .... 308 

151. Charts comparing Germany with other coun- 

tries in size and population (P.) . . . 308 

152. Historic features and government (B.) . . 308 

153. Charts for rainfall and temperature (P.) . . 311 

154. Industries 

lumbering (P. S.) 311 

farming (P. S.) 312 

mining (P.) 312 

manufacturing 313 

toys 313 

textiles (P. B. S. C.) 313 



92 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

155. Products in review (P.) ....... 311-313 

156. Government and education (B.) . . . . 314 

157. Transportation 

German and American railways compared 

(P.B.C.) 314 

158. Cities — (travel books) (B.) 315-317 

159. Famous buildings and scenery (P. B.) . • . 317 

160. Typical scenes (P. B. S. C.) 317 

(as Castle on Rhine) 

Switzerland 

161. Charts showing variety in vegetation in 

mountains (P.) 319 

162. Glaciers and their work (P. B.) 320 

163. Typical scenes in home life, houses and envi- 

ronment, costumes (B. C.) 320 

164. Industries . 320 

Manufacturing (P. B.) 

(showing various products) 

165. Transportation — tunnels, etc. (P. B. S. C.) . 322 

166. Famous scenery (P. B.) 322 

Italy 

167. Relief map (S.) 323,308 

168. Charts comparing area and population (P.) . 323 

169. People and government (B.) 323 

170. Charts showing location in zones for compar- 

ing climates (P.) 323 

171. Industries 

agriculture and irrigation 324 

farm products (P. B. S. C.) 325 

172. Manufactures 

silk industry . 325 

sponge fishing (P. B.) 325 



173- 
174. 



175- 
176. 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 93 

Pages 

Cities — shown on sandmap (S.) . . . . 326 
Story of Pompeii (B.) 

Naples and Vesuvius (P. B.) 326 

Art treasures of Italy (B.) 326 

Famous buildings (P. C.) 328 

model of Colosseum, etc 328 

Venice — on sand map (P. S.) 330 

Review of products and manufactures (P.) . 330 




Fig. 34. — A Derrick. Fifth Grade Boys. McKinley School, 
St. Joseph, Mo. 

Austria-Hungary 

177. Color map (P.) 331-308 

178. Charts for area and population, rainfall and 

temperature (P.) 331 

179. People (P. B.) 331-332 

houses and costumes (S. C.) 

180. Government (B.) 332 

181. Industries — various scenes on sandtable (S.) 332 

182. Products and manufactures (P.) • • • • 335 

183. Cities — on color map (P.) 



94 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Balkan Peninsula 

Pages 

184. Color map (P.) 335, 308 

185. Charts comparing area and population with 

other countries (P.) 335 

186. Charts showing climate and vegetation 

(P.) 335 

187. Peoples (P. B.) 335 

costumes (B. C.) 

customs (B.) 

religions (B.) 336 

188. Industries — products and manufactures 

(P. B.) ?>?>S-2>Z^ 

189. Governments (B.) 336 

190. Historic features (P. B.) 337 

Story of Greece (B.) 338 

191. Famous buildings in Greece (model Acropo- 

lis) (C.) 339 

192. Current events (P. B.) 

193. Animals of Europe (P. C.) 301 

194. Review products of Europe (P.) 

Asia 

195. Charts comparing 

area and population 341,424 

rainfall and climate (P.) 343, 346 

196. Color map (P.) 341 

197. Charts — showing location in zones (P.) 

showing vegetation (P.) 343 

198. Animals of Asia (P. B.) 344 

elephants at work 344 

199. People 

historic features (B.) 345-346 

modern progress (B.) 347 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 95 

Turkish Empire 

Pages 

200. Color map showing extent (P.) 347 

201. Holy Land — relief map (S.) 349 

ancient and present customs (B.) . . . 349 

products (P.) 348 

Arabian Peninsula and Persia 

202. Products (P.) 351 

203. Government (B.) 351 

typical scenes (S.) 
tent home (P. C.) 

caravan (P. S.) 343 

rug weavers (P.) 347 

Siberia 

204. Plant and animal life (P.) 352 

205. Government and people (B.) 353 

India 

206. ReHef map (S.) 354 

207. Rainfall chart (P.) 354 

Population chart (P.) 355 

208. Historic features and religion (B.) . . . . 355 ° 

government (B.) 355-35^ 

209. Products (P.) 356 

tea plantation (S.) 357 

lumbering with elephants (P.) • • • • 359 

210. Wagons and buffalo carts (C.) 360 

China 

211. Relief map — with wall (S.) 361,340 

212. Products (P.) 365 

213. Government and religion (B.) 364 



96 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

214. Houses and costumes (P. C.) 363-364 

215. Vehicles (C.) 363 

216. Methods of farming and irrigation (P. S.) . 364 

silk culture (P. B.) 365 

tea culture (P. S.) ^ . 365 

Japan 

217. Relief map (S.) 367,340 

218. Color map (P.) 367 

219. History and Government (B.) 368 

220. Industries (P.) 369 

silk culture (P. B.) 369 

tea culture (P. B.) 369 

pottery (C.) 37° 

221. Cities — on relief map (S.) 37o~37i 

Africa 

222. Relief map (S.) 372 

223. Color map (P.) 373 

224. Charts showing zones, rainfall and cUmate (P.) 374 

225. Animals (P. C.) 375 

226. People — charts showing population (P.) . 376 

227. Homes and customs of natives (S. C.) . . 376 

228. Foreign owners — chart (P.) 377 

229. Scenes in Sahara desert (S.) 378 

230. Egypt 379-3S0 

Pyramids (B. S.) 
Nile (B. S.) 
Sphinx (B. S.) 
History (B.) 

231. Arab — schools, religion (B.) Z^Z~2>^^ 

232. Products of Africa (P.) 384-385 

233. The EngHsh and Dutch in S. Africa (B.) . . 384 

234. Transportation (P. S. C.) 386 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 97 

Pages 

235. People of Central Africa (P.) 387 

236. Review of products (P.) ^SS-^8g 

Australia and Islands 

237. Relief map of Australia (S.) 391 

2 7,8. Color map of Australia and Islands (P.) • • 391 

239. Native animals (P.) 392- 393 

240. People and government (B.) 392-397 

241. Charts showing population (P.) 394 

242. Products (P.) . . . •. 395-396 

243. Typical native houses (P. C.) 397 

HISTORY 

Suggested hst of topics drawn from Tappan's ''Our Coun- 
try's Story," with one or more forms of illustration suited to 
fifth-grade pupils. The letters indicate the form of illustra- 
tion.i 

PAGES 

1. Early ideas of the world (P. B.) 1-2 

2. Methods of travel in fifteenth century 

(P. B. S. C.) 2-^ 

3. Armor and weapons in fifteenth century 

(P. B. C.) 3-18 

4. Early maps (P.) . 4-5 

5. Models of early ships (C.) 2-6 

6. Routes of Columbus' voyages (S.) .... 8-10 

7. Scenes in New World (S.) lo-ii 

Explorers and routes . 

8. Cabots' route (S.) 13 

9. Magellan's route (S.) 17-18 

10. De Leon's route (S.) 16 

^ P — Poster, including all maps and charts ; B — Illustrated book- 
let; S — Sandtable representation; C — Construction in various ma- 
terials, including clay modeling. 
H 



98 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK I 

Pages 

Cartier's route (S.) 20-21 

Maps showing all explorations (P. S.) 

Settlements in Florida (S.) 24-25 

Raleigh's Colonies (P. B. S. C.) 26-27 

Costumes in time of Queen Elizabeth 

(P. B. C.) 27 




Fig. 35. — A Panama Canal and an Inclined Railway. One tier of locks oper- 
ated. Works from an old clock operated the railway. Fifth Grade. Co- 
Ivimbia, Mo. (See List F.) 



16. Vehicles, same (P. B. C.) . . 

17. Indian homes and weapons 

canoe 
cradle 
cooking utensils (P. B. S. C.) 



29 



34-41 



.TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 99 

Pages 

18. Story of John Smith (B.) 43 

19. Chart of Virginia Colony (P.) 43-49 

20. Scenes in Virginia Colony (P. S.) 

21. Story of Pilgrims (B.) 52 

22. Mayflower, pictures (P.) 

models (C.) 155 

23. Pilgrims in America 

houses 

costumes 

furniture, etc. (P. B. S. C.) 55-60 

24. Puritans — story, journey (P. B. S. C.) . . 63 

25. Quakers — dress, habits (P. B.) 67 

26. Indians in New England (P. B. S.) . . . . 69 

27. Blockhouse (C.) 73 

28. Story of Roger Williams (P. B. S.) . . . . 75-76 

29. New England stockade (P. S. C.) . . . . 81 

30. New England schools (B.) . . . , . . 66-72 

31. Early New England customs (P. B. S.) . . S^SS, 

32. Dutch settlements and customs (P. B. S. C.) 89-98 
;^:^. Story of William Penn and Quaker settle- 
ments (P. B. S.) 99-104 

34. Maryland plantations (P. S.) 105-107 

35. Settlements in Southern Colonies (P. S.) . . 109-114 

36. Review charts of English settlements (P.) 

37. Relief maps review (S.) 

38. French explorations 

story and sand map (B. S.) . . . . . 114 

39. Story of war with French (with " Evangeline ' ' ) 

(B. S.) 119-128 

40. Colonial customs 

houses 

costumes 

vehicles, etc. (P. B. C.) 129-139 



lOO ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

41. Early events of Revolution 

people, weapons, places (P. B.) .... 141-153 
famous pictures of Revolution (P. B.) 

42. Story of George Washington (P. B.) . . . 154 

43. Charts of early battles (P.) 141 

44. Events of Revolution by years (P.) . . . 154 

45. Surrender of Cornwallis (P. S.) 167 

46. Famous people of Revolutionary times (P. B.) 1 54-1 70 

47. Story of Franklin (B.) 163 

48. Invention of cotton gin (P. B. C.) . • • . 173 

49. Fulton's steamboat (P. B. C.) 183 

50. Emigrant train for West (P. B. S.) ... 185 

51. Stagecoach in 1825 (P. C.) 188 

52. Early chaise (P. C.) 189 

53. Early freight wagon (P. C.) 189 

54. Erie Canal with locks (P. B. S. C.) ... 190 

55. Early railroad train (P. C.) 191 

56. Famous statesmen of early history (P. B.) . 192 

57. Noted writers of early history (P. B.) . . . 194 

58. Invention of telegraph (P. B. C.) . . . . 199 

59. Discovery of gold in California (P. B. S.) . 202-203 

60. Scenes in North and South before war, in con- 

trast (P. S.) 

61. Story of Lincoln (P. B. S.) 208 

62. Story of Southern leaders (P. B.) . . . . 210 

63. Model of Monitor (C.) 215 

64. Story of U. S. Grant (B.) 222 

65. Review of Civil War, in pictures (P.) . . . 208-228 

66. Famous buildings 

White House 
Capitol, etc. (P. B.) 

67. Laying Atlantic cable (P. B.) 230 

68. Events of Cuban war (P. B.) 241 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 



lOI 




I02 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

69. Book of our Presidents (B.) ...... 154-250 

70. Charts showing expansion (P.) 

Suggested Hst of topics drawn from Gordy's "History of 
the United States," with one or more forms of illustration 
suited to sixth- and seventh-grade pupils. The letters indi- 
cate the form of illustration.^ 

Pages 

71. Review of voyages of Columbus (P. B.) . . 1-8 

72. Charts of Norse voyages (P.) 11 

73. Review of Spanish explorations (P.) . . . 13-18 

74. Review of English explorations (P. S.) . . 20-25 

75. Review of Virginia Colony 

Color maps and pictures (P. S.) 28-40 

76. Review of Pilgrims and Puritans (P. S.) . . 43-60 

77. New England and Virginia in contrast (S.) . 28-43 

78. Colonial house, etc. (C.) 

' 79. Review of Dutch in America (P.) .... 63-68 

80. Review of Quakers in America (P.) . . . 68-72 

81. Indian customs (P. B.) 75-83 

canoes, snowshoes (C.) 
weapons, baskets (C.) 
money, totems, mounds (C.) 

82. Review of French explorations (P.) ... 87 
8;^. Noted Frenchmen of America (P. B.) . . . 89-92 

84. French settlements (P.) 87-98 

85. Braddock's defeat (B.) 98 

86. Story of Acadia (B.) 99 

87. Story of Wolfe and Quebec (P. B. S.) . . . loi 

88. New England colonial life (P.) 106 

occupations (P.) 106 

1 P — Poster, including all maps and charts ; B — Illustrated book- 
let ; S — Sandtable representation ; C — Construction in various ma- 
terials, including clay modeling. 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 1 03 

Pages 

Colonial customs (continued) 

education — religion (B.) 106-109 

methods of punishment (S.) 109 

home life and amusements (P. S. C.) . . no 

89. Southern colonial life — as above (P. B. S. C.) 11 i-i 13 

90. Middle colonial life — as above (P. B. S. C.) 113-117 

91. Spinning wheels (C.) 113-117 

92. Modes of travel in Colonies (P. B. C.) . . 117 

93. Charts showing various forms of government 

in Colonies (P.) 1 18-122 

94. Charts showing causes of Revolution (P.) . 126 

95. Poster review of events, leading to Revolu- 

tion — as 

Boston Tea Party 139 

Boston Massacre, etc. (P. B.) 

96. Map showing early movements of troops (P.) 142-143 

97. Minuteman in uniform (P. C.) 144 

98. Famous buildings of Revolution (P. B.) . . 130-153 

99. Chart showing Washington's camps and 

marches (P.) 148 

100. Scenes showing famous events, as 
Washington crossing the Delaware (P. S.) . 154 
Army at Valley Forge (P. S.) 164 

10 1. Sandmap for Hudson River Campaign (S.) . 157 

102. Events leading to capture of Burgoyne (P.) 157-163 

103. Weapons and uniforms of Revolutionary sol- 

diers (P. C.) 168 

104. Story of Franklin (B.) 162 

105. Story of George Rogers Clark (B.) .... 169-170 

106. Story of John Paul Jones (B.) 172 

107. Pictorial review of ships of the Revolution 

(P. B.) 172 

108. Chart of battles in South (P.) 174-177 



I04 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

ICQ. Story of Benedict Arnold (B.) ..... 177 

110. Story of Cornwallis (B.) 179 

111. Battle of Yorktown (S.) 181 

112. Relief map of Colonies, at close of war (S.) 182 

113. Color map — same (P.) 182 

114. Scenes showing home conditions at close of 

war (P. S.) 196 

115. Noted generals of Revolution (B.) 

116. Review chart of chief battles (P.) .... 148-181 

117. Color map showing colonial possessions at 

close of war (P.) 

118. Relief map showing colonial possessions at 

close of war (S.) 

119. Important people of Revolution (P. B.) 

120. Home conditions at close of war (P. S.) . . 197 

121. Modes of travel — stage to railroad (P. B. C.) 198 

122. Methods of carrying mails (P. B. S.) . . . 198 

123. Story of Alexander Hamilton (B.) .... 200-202 

124. Story of Thomas Jefferson (B.) 200-215 

125. Invention of cotton gin (P. B. C ) , . . . 204 

126. Chart of poHtical parties (P.) 209 

127. Scenes in pioneer life (P. B. S.) 216 

128. Methods of weaving (P. B.) 218 

cotton (C.) 
wool (C.) 
linen (C.) 

129. Lewis and Clark Expedition (P. B. C.) . . 221 

130. Chart of causes of War of 181 2 (P.) . . . 229 

131. Troubles with Indians (P. B.) 228-235 

132. Story of Commodore Perry (B.) . . . . 232 

133. Writing of " Star Spangled Banner " (B.) . 234 

134. Color chart for growth of territory — Florida 

(P.) 239 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 



105 




Io6 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

135. Map of National Road (P, S.) « = . . . 242 

136. Story of Henry Clay (B.) 244 

137. Erie Canal (P. B. S. C.) 245 

138. Great statesmen — Calhoun, Webster, etc. 

(P-B.) . • • 253 

139. The first railroads, showing types of cars used 

(P. B. S. C.) 257-260 

140. Early steamboats (P. B. C.) 264 

141. Invention of telegraph (P. B. C.) . . . . 267 

142. Representation of contrasting conditions in 

North and South (P. S.) 272-292 

143. Chart of Mexican War (P.) 274 

144. Discovery of gold in California (P. B. S. C.) 279 

145. Chart of route to California (P. S.) . . . 280 

146. Modes of travel to West (P.) 282 

147. Statesmen in the slavery struggle (B.) . . 290 

148. Chart of causes of Civil War (P.) .... 275-297 

149. Story of Abraham Lincoln (P. B.) . . . . 299 

150. Model of Monitor (C.) 312 

151. Story of U. S. Grant (B.) 315 

152. Charts and relief maps of chief battles (P. S.) 316 

153. Heroes of Civil War (P. B.) 

154. Story of Robert E. Lee (B.) 324 

155. Story of David Farragut (B.) 343 

156. Story of Sanitary Commission and Red Cross 

Association (B.) 350 

157. Story of Ku Klux Klans (B.) 361 

158. Building Eads bridge at St. Louis (P. B. C.) 366 

159. Sugar and cotton plantations (P. B. S.) . . 368 

160. Western mining camps (P. B. S.) . . . . 374 

161. Modern farming methods in West (P. B. S. C.) 376 

162. Immigrants of Western coast (compare with 

Eastern) (P. B.) 377 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 107 




A SHEEP 
RANCH 




Fig. 38. — Booklets. Training Class. Missouri University, 



Pages 



163. Chart of transcontinental railroad (P.) . . 378 

164. Artesian well and irrigation system 

(P. B. S. C.) 379 

165. Color chart of Forest Reserves, for United 

States (P.) • ... 380 



I08 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Pages 

i66. Color chart of timber for United States (P.) 

167. Trans-Atlantic cable (P. B.) 382 

168. Color chart of Alaskan Purchase (P.) . . . 384 

169. Invention of typewriter (P. B.) 385 

170. Invention of telephone (P. B. C.) . . . . 386 

171. Invention of sewing machine (P. B.) . . . 387 

172. Centennial and other Expositions (P. B.) . ^SS 

173. Brooklyn Bridge (P. B.) 394 

174. Models of bridges (C.) 

175. Gift of Statue of Liberty (P. B.) .... 396 

176. Events of war with Spain (P.) 411 

177. Heroes of Spanish War (P. B.) 411-413 

178. Color map of Philippines (P.) 422 

179. Building Panama Canal (P. B. S. C.) . . . 423 

180. Literary heroes of United States (P. B.) . . 428 

181. Review of administrations, giving events of 

each in pictures (P.) 

SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS IN 
THE STUDY OF SOUTH AMERICA 

Text: Tarr and McMurry, Book II, pp. 231-255.^ 
Carpenter's South America (revised ed.). 
General Facts 

I. Model Relief map in damp sand. 
Show coast line 

mountain ranges %-■ 

rivers 
forests 

prairies and plains 
arid regions 
2o Color charts for which printed or hectographed outline 
maps are used. 

^See explanatory note, page 114. 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION lOQ 

Show location of South America in zones 
direction of winds 
relation to ocean currents 
rainfall 
temperature 

{forests 
prairies 
arid regions 

(For suggestions see figures 303 and 334, Tarr and 
McMurry.) 

The making of the maps may be group projects, 
each feature of the sandmap being assigned to a 
small group. Each color map may be assigned to 
two or three pupils working together. By this 
method the pupils will check each other's work. 
For example, the river committee will have diffi- 
culty in putting in rivers on the sandmap if the 
mountain committee has done poor work. 

3. Posters — either mounted pictures or sketches. 
Showing wild animals 
domestic animals 
birds, insects, reptiles 

Countries 

1. Trace the boundaries of the several countries on the 
relief map. 

2. Make individual color maps of continent showing coun- 
tries, using printed or hectographed outline maps. 

3. Make individual color maps of each country or group 
of small countries. 

4. If time is allowed for an exhaustive study, make relief 
maps of the various sections on the sandtable. 



no ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

5. Study the productive possibilities of the countries by 
means of charts, showing rainfall, drainage, temperature, etc. 

Products 

Make posters showing products and by-products. These 
posters should be individual work, each pupil covering the 
entire field, as a method of study. The posters may be 
planned in two ways. 

1. By countries — each poster or series of posters show- 

ing the productions of a single country. 

2. Byproducts — each poster showing a single product 

with its by-products, and methods of cultivation 
and manufacture. 

For example: Rubber 

methods of cultivation 
methods of manufacture 
things made of rubber 
rubber-producing districts 

Industries 

1. Sandtable illustration of most typical industries and 

those least familiar to us, such as, 
rubber making 
coffee growing 
banana culture 
cocoa culture 

2. Posters. Illustrate the chief occupations and indus- 

tries of each section or country in a series of 
posters on one of two plans. 

A. Let country be the unit and show chief industries 

of that country, as, The Industries of Brazil. 

B. Let the industry be the unit and show its nature 

and extent. 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION III 



r^^ 


"^ 


^^ 


4#^A!X)£W#^^ yP''*'*"Wr^' JJNiiwpW 


%^0^ . 


'WW" 


^ S^- ' 


(^% 


inWw 


wj^^'l^B 



Fig. 39. — Studies in Transportation. Twenty-five-minute Sketches in 
Brushwork. Fourth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 



112 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



This may be made individual work for each pupil, 
the topics being so distributed that the assembled 
results will bring out all the points under both heads. 
Children learn much in explaining their respective 
projects to each other. 










I 



e 



Fig. 40. — Pose Studies in Peasant Costumes Correlated with Geography of 
Europe. Sixth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

II 

Collect samples of woods, minerals, vegetable 
fibers, grasses, etc. 

Excellent prepared exhibits of various products 
are to be had for reference purposes. These do not, 
however, create the interest aroused in a single 
sample brought in by a member of the class. We 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION II3 

prize that which costs us effort. After trying to 
find suitable samples themselves, the children will 
better appreciate the value of the prepared exhibit. 
Make models of tools of especial interest. 
Contrast either by poster pictures or by modeling 
or by both — the difference in tools and methods 
used by primitive tribes and the more progressive 
sections. Seek the reasons for the difference and its 
effect. 

Make comparisons between South America and 
other countries in volume of production and com- 
merce. 
For example : 
Make coffee-pot to represent amount of coffee grown in 
South America, another for coffee grown elsewhere, 
another for coffee shipped to United States. 
Make wheat sack to represent size of wheat crop in South 
America, another to represent size of wheat crop in 
United States, another to represent size of wheat crop 
elsewhere. 
Measure and cut out pieces of cotton cloth, woolen cloth, 
etc. 5 to represent the volume and value of these industries 
compared with other parts of the world. 

The People 

I . Let class make sandtable illustrations to show interest- 
ing types of home life, including 

houses 

cooking utensils 

furniture 

clothing 

vehicles 



114 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK . 

2. Show same items in individual posters. 

3. Show typical methods of travel by models, by posters, 

or by both. 

Government and History. — Each country should 
form the subject of an illustrated booklet containing 
a description of the conditions peculiar to that 
country, with pictures of its important buildings, 
famous people, important commercial and industrial 
features, form of government, etc., summing up 
what has been learned in the general reading and 
study. Each pupil should write upon one country. 

Explanatory Note. — The foregoing outline follows 
the order of the Tarr and McMurry text and pre- 
supposes a previous reading of a description of the 
country such as is found in Carpenter's " South 
America." Where such previous work has been 
omitted, the writer would prefer to reverse the order 
and introduce the subject by a study of home life 
and industrial occupations accompanied by abundant 
concrete illustration. Such an introduction would 
tend to awaken a personal interest not only in the 
people but in their environment also, as an explana- 
tion of the contrasts between their lives and our own, 
and would make a later systematic study of the 
general facts more vital than it is when pursued in a 
formal fashion. 

The projects suggested in the preceding outline 
might be carried out, perhaps with increased interest, 
in the order suggested in the following brief outline, 



TOPICS FOR CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 



115 




Il6 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

which is based upon the idea that the study of a 
country should be approached through its most 
interesting feature, namely, the people and their 
habits which form a contrast to our own. This will 
include home and industrial life. The animal life of 
a country is also of intense interest. The pupil's 
interest may be tested by the parts of his text which 
he reads on his own initiative before lessons are 
assigned. 

Brief outline : 

Home Life 

Houses, utensils, costumes, religious customs 

Studied through pictures, descriptions, and models 
Industrial Life 

Farming, — crops, tools, machines 

Mineral and forest products, — collections of samples 

Animals, — posters and pictures 

Charts showing comparative values 
Physical Features 

Contour maps in damp sand and dough 

Vegetation and rainfall charts 
Commerce 

Chief cities, harbors, railroads, located on maps 

Discuss reasons for growth of cities at certain points 
and relation to trade routes 
Countries 

Boundaries, physical features, industries 
Government 

Form of government 

Schools and educational standing 

Chief historical events 



CHAPTER IV 

LISTS OF PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY 
VARIOUS TEACHERS 

A QUESTION is frequently raised as to the amount 

of illustrative work desirable in any one class. Each 

of the following lists shows the projects carried out 

by one teacher during one year, at the time these 

special studies were in progress. It will be noted 

that the lists vary greatly in length. The only rule 

to be laid down for the use of illustrative projects 

is that they should be used when they add to the 

efficiency of the study in progress. Much depends 

upon the teacher's ability to guide the work into 

profitable channels and to inhibit any tendency 

toward purposeless playing with materials. Mere 

making for the sake of making is a waste of time. 

It is impossible to lay too much emphasis upon the 

importance of the thought values to be gained 

through illustrative projects. 

• 
List A, Grade Five 

History 

I. Series of posters, illustrating story of Columbus. 

II. Sandtable illustration for Daniel Boone. Combined 

with study of geography of Mississippi Valley. 

117 



Il8 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

III. Sandtable illustration shawing life of Pilgrims, with 

cabins, costumes, etc. 

IV. Sandtable illustration for Lewis and Clark expedition, 

showing physical features of region and important 

events of journey. 
In connection with reading — 

V. Sandtable illustrating story of Robinson Crusoe. 
VI. Series of booklets on Longfellow. 

Geography 
I. Sandtable and construction showing Panama Canal, 
with locks, steam shovel, and railroad. 

II. Sandtable illustration of gold mine in California, show- 
ing placer method, figures with cradles and pans. 

III. Series of booklets on birds of United States. Indi- 

vidual. 

IV. Series of booklets on South America. Individual. 

The booklets and posters in this series were made 
during study periods as regular class work. The 
sandtable illustrations were made mostly out of 
regular class hours. See List B by same teacher 
in following year. 

List B, Grade Five 
History 
I. Sandtable illustration for story of Daniel Boone, show- 
ing stockade at Boonesborough, cabins, house in 
Missouri, etc. 
II. Series of individual booklets on Boone. 

III. Sandtable illustration of Pilgrim home life. 

IV. Series of booklets on Pilgrims. 
V. Series of posters on Pilgrims. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS II9 




Fig. 42. — Pose Work with Stories and Games. Third Grade. 
Columbia, Mo. 



I20 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

VI. Sandtable illustration showing events in life of 

Washington, 
VII. Colonial cabin of two rooms, showing kitchen and 
cooking utensils, furniture, bed, dolls in costume. 

List B by same teacher as List A. Work done 
almost wholly in class time as regular study and 
recitation. 

Geography 

I. Sandtable illustration of lumber camp. Cabin, flume, 

mill, and ice road. 

II. Sandtable illustration of gold mine with mining ma- 

chinery. 

III. Sandtable relief map of CaUfornia. 

IV. Sandtable representation of salmon fisheries and 

cannery. 
V. Series of books on birds. 
VI. Series of books on trees. 

VII. Series of posters; each state with its products and 

industries. 
VIII. Series of posters showing evolution of transportation 
by land. 
IX. Series of color charts showing products and industries 
of Missouri. 

List C, Grade Five 
History 
I. Sandtable problem illustrating Battle of Quebec, show- 
ing fort on plateau and soldiers. 

II. Sandtable problem showing events in life of Lincoln. 

Geography 

III. Sandtable illustration for PhiHppine Islands, showing 

home Ufe. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 121 

List D, Grade Five 
Geography 

I. Series of booklets on industries of the United States. 
II. Series of posters, on Philippine Islands. 

III. Sandtable illustration for Salt Lake City and vicinity, 

showing process of irrigation. 

IV. Sandtable illustration of Philippine village. 



■■|H 


^^M 







Fig. 43. — The Battle of Quebec. Fifth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

V. Numerous spontaneous illustrations on sandtable, 
showing outhne of country or state, river valleys, 
tributaries, etc., quickly made during recitation and 
destroyed soon after. 
Numbers I and IV were all done in study period as 
regular work. 
History 
I. Series of booklets containing a collection of history 
papers. Made during regular study hours. 
In addition this class made booklets on other topics — 
five series in all, and three series of posters. All 
done as method of studying the subject. 



122 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



List E, Grade Five 



(With Grade Four) 

History 
I. Booklets on New England States. Illustrated by 
pictures of famous places mounted on separate 
sheets, and colored maps. 

II. Sandtable scene — Bunker Hill. In first attempt on 
sandtable, grass and corn were planted, but froze 
during the Thanksgiving holiday. A second at- 
tempt turned out well. 

III. House framed and furnished. Used chiefly in con- 
nection with arithmetic for papering and plastering 
problems. 

List F, Grade Five 
History 
I. Sandtable. Routes of explorers shown on sandtable 
with ships and flags of each country. 

II. Series of problems on sandtable illustrating Colonial 

life. 
a. Virginia — figures showing gentlemen — not 

laborers. 
h. Holland — map with dikes, mills, etc. 

c. Pilgrims — Plymouth Rock — town of seven huts, 

people shown as poor. 

d. Puritans — people shown as well-to-do, schools, 

including Harvard. 

e. Rhode Island — Roger Wilhams and Indians rep- 

resented. 
/. Connecticut — showing Hooker's trip from Massa- 
chusetts. 

III. Sandtable illustration showing Boston Tea Party. 

IV. Constructions — models of inventions. 
a. Fulton's steamboat. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 23 

h. Telegraph — not well worked out. 
c. Cotton gin — good model. 
V. Series of posters showing events of each adminis- 
tration. 
VI. Series of booklets and posters for general review of 

history. 
Geography 
I. Sandtable map of New England, showing industries in 
small constructions. 
II. Individual posters on New England industries. 

III. Sandtable illustration of lumber camp in Maine, with 

cabin, mill, sled, etc. 

IV. Sandtable illustration for fishing, showing hatchery, 

spawn pond, oyster dredges, etc. 
V. Series of constructions showing industries of Middle 
States. 

a. Coal mine, with shaft. 

b. Brick kiln. 

c. Oil well with derrick. 

d. Salt mine. 

e. Iron mine. 

/. Glass factory. 
g. Pottery. 
VI. Sandtable illustration of Southern plantation and tur- 
pentine farm. 
VII. Sandtable for Western States showing mines. 

a. Hydraulic, panning gold. 

b. Shaft mine and ore crusher. 
VIII. Series of color maps for each section. 

XI. Series of rainfall maps. 
X. Series of color maps showing mining centers. 
XI. Sandtable illustration for Panama — showing canal 

with locks — locks made to lift the boats up and 

down quite successfully. 



124 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 25 

List G, Grades Five and Six 

History 
I. Sandtable illustration for Columbus Day. Figures 
made before table was provided proved to be 
too large when table was received. Class dis- 
couraged and subject rested for several days. 
On Columbus Day geography period (one-half 
hour study, one-half hour for recitation) was 
given over to illustration on sandtable. A good 
piece of work was done in one hour. 

II. Sandtable illustration of Colonial life showing log 
cabins, spinning wheels, well-sweep, ox carts. 

III. Series of booklets on American heroes. 

Geography 

I. Lumber camp on sandtable, in connection with read- 
ing of ''Building of the Ship." 
Time — spare minutes during two or three days. 
II. Life in Holland (Grade Six) showing canals, dikes, 
windmills, etc. 
Time — Lesson periods for five days ; work done by 
small groups while others were occupied at 
seats. 
III. Series of booklets on European countries. 
rV. Southern plantation on sandtable (Grade Five), in- 
cluding several houses and many clay figures, 
cotton-fields of real cotton stalks. 
Time — Done in odd minutes while class was study- 
ing the Southern States. 
V. Scottish scene (Sixth Grade) in connection with geog- 
raphy of Europe and "Lady of the Lake;" 
castle in cement, real grass growing on island 
and hills. 
(See Fig. i, Page 3.) 



126 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

List H, Grades Five and Six 
History 
I. Sandtable illustration of Indian camp. 
II. New England kitchen, shgwing furniture, dolls in cos- 
tume, etc. 
Additional work in other subjects : 
Series of booklets in arithmetic. 
Series of booklets in language. 
Series of booklets illustrating poems. 
The work in this class was done almost entirely during 
study hours. 
Geography 
I. Series of booklets on European countries, by Sixth 

Grade. 
II. Series of posters for each European country, by Sixth 
Grade. 

III. Series of booklets on each group of states, by Fifth 

Grade. 

IV. Series of posters for Middle States. 
V. Series of posters for Western States. 

VI. Community posters for : 

Central States, by Grade Five. 
Western States, by Grade Five. 
Europe, by Grade Six. 
VII. Constructions — European vehicles, by Sixth Grade. 
Dutch milk cart, Irish jaunting car, Russian 
droshky. 
VIII. Sandtable illustrations including: 
a. Lumber camp. 
h. Coal mine. 

c. Holland. 

d. A farm. 

e. Relief maps. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 27 

List I, Grades Five and Six 

History 
I. Sandtable illustration for early settlement period, 

showing settlement at one end of table, Indian 

village in forest at opposite end. 
II. Sandtable illustration for Bunker Hill, arranged by 

girls. 

III. Series of posters illustrating United States history to 

Revolution. Class in three groups under cap- 
tains who assigned topics. 

IV. Poster review of the year's work in history. Class in 

three sections under captains. 
V. Series of posters illustrating a quotation from "The 
Courtship of Miles Standish" read in connection 
with history. Each pupil chose a quotation and 
made an illustrative sketch. 
Geography 
I. Series of booklets on South America. Class in three 
groups on three topics. 
Time — Class work and home reading for one week. 
II. Sandtable scene showing Western prairie, with dugout, 
etc. by boys. 
Time — one hour. 

III. Illustrated booklets, describing countries of Europe. 

Class worked in three sections under captains. 

IV. Sandtable problems to accompany No. III. 

First section — Spanish scene. i 

Second section — Dutch scene. 

Third section — Russia and Scandinavia. 

This class made several sandtable illustrations 
for literature work — including " Snov^bound '' and 
" Home of John Burroughs." 



128 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

List J, Grade Six 
History 
I. Sandtable illustration for Columbus Day. Parallels 
and meridians located by strings stretched across 
table. Cuba, South America, Florida in relief 
in sand, figures in cardboard. "Bad boy" in- 
terested in making boats. 
Geography 
I. Lumber camp on sandtable, showing log cabin, flume, 
ice road, loaded wagon, sawmill with engine. 
Written work accompanying above : 
Diary of five days' visit to a lumber camp. 
Letter written from camp to some one at home. 
II. Sand map of British Isles, showing parallels and me- 
ridians, cotton and wool manufacturing district, 
coal industry, and important cities. 

III. Sandtable and construction, home life in Holland, 

showing : 
well made Dutch house with appropriate furnishings, 
windmill with wheel operated by spring, 
garden and farm implements, 
cattle in clay, 
people in costume (dolls). 

IV. Sandtable and construction, castle on Rhine of stones 

and cement, in appropriate setting on sand- 
table. 
V. Sandtable and construction, Lapland home, showing 
hut of mud and stone, reindeer and sled, people 
in costume (dolls). 
VI. Sandtable and construction, life in South Russia, 

showing thatched hut. 
VII. Sandtable and construction, relief map of Italy, show- 
ing St. Gothard tunnel. Tower of Pisa, Vesuvius, 
orange grove, macaroni factory, etc. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 129 




130 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

List K, Grade Six 



History 
I. Series of posters, illustrating Colonial customs, cos- 
tumes, and travel. 
II. Series of booklets on Heroes of Revolution. 
Both series done in study period. 
In addition this class made. 
Booklets : 
Language — two sets. 
Reading — one set. 
Drawing — one set. 
Posters : 

Drawing — one set. 
All work done in study period. 
Geography 
I. Series of posters on Europe, showing products, houses, 

vehicles, flags, rulers, etc. 
II. Series of booklets on countries of Europe. Both done 

in study period as regular work. 
III. Dolls dressed in costume of European countries. 
Work done out of school hours, at home and at 
recesses; sewing by girls, wooden shoes, rake, 
etc., by boys. 

List L, Grade Six 
History 
I. Construction — costumes and scenery for original 
drama on ''Columbus at Court of Spain." 
Time — class hour and periods before school for week 
preceding Columbus Day. 
II. Sandtable illustration for French and Indian War, 
showing French homes, American homes, French 
fort. 
Time — of selected groups during two class periods. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 131 




132 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

III. Sandtable illustration of scenes at Valley Forge, show- 
ing soldiers and tents on snowy field, blood prints 
in snow. 
Geography 
I. Posters illustrating products of South America. 
Series by each pupil. 
Time — class hour for study during time devoted to 
topic — about two weeks. 
II. Sandtable illustration for Scandinavian region, show- 
ing rugged coast line and home life. 
III. Sandtable illustration for Italy. Table in two sec- 
tions, girls showed Venice in one part, and boys 
showed Rome in another part. 
Time ^- study hour — half hour period. 

List M, Grade Six 
History 
I. Series of posters as review of administrations. 
II. Series of Hero Books. 
Also: 

Series of posters in nature study. 
Series of posters on stories read. 
Several series of booklets giving outlines of books 
read, as ''A Dog of Flanders," "Rebecca of 
Sunny Brook Farm." 

This class did exceptionally strong work from the 
artistic standpoint in the preparation of their book- 
lets and posters. 

Geography 
I. Series of posters on products. ♦ 

II. Series of booklets on countries of Europe. 

These were both done in regular study periods as 
method of studying subject. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 33 




134 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

III. Sandtable illustrations for 

a. Ireland 

b. Holland 

c. Scotland 

d. Italy 

These were made almost entirely in study periods. 
Extra time, if any, not over one hour during 
week in which illustration was made. 
IV. Numerous spontaneous illustrations on sandtable 
while topics were under discussion. These re- 
garded by teacher as most helpful use of the 
sandtable. 
V. Constructions — vehicles used in Holland, Ireland, 

Belgium, Russia and Spain. 
VI. Swiss peasant cottage. 
VII. Venetian gondola. 
VIII. Volcano in eruption — built on sandtable. 

These were individual constructions made chiefly at 
home and out of class hours. 

List N, Grade Six 
History 

I. Series of posters on events of Revolution. 
II. Series of posters on ''Evangeline" and "Courtship 
of Miles Standish" (read in connection with 
history). 
Geography 
I. Series of booklets on each country of Europe. 

Time — study hour, as method of study. 
II. Sandtable illustrations for 

a. Holland 

b. London 

c. Castle on the Rhine 

Made almost entirely during study periods. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 35 




136 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

List P, Grade Seven 
Geography 
I. Series of posters showing productions of Asia. Each 

poster made by two pupils. 
II. Series of posters showing life in Africa, animals, prod- 
ucts, caravan, etc. 
III. Poster review of industries in foreign countries. 
I, II and III all done in regular study hour as 
the method of studying these topics. 
History 
I. Sand table map of United States showing extension of 
territory including measurements in proportion. 
Time — Prepared during regular study period by small 
groups working in turn — each group respon- 
sible for certain part. 
II. Sandtable — life in the thirteen colonies, showing early 
conditions. 
Time — study hour during a week of review, work 
apportioned as in I. 

III. Relief map of United States, showing development 

from colonial times to 1850, including Penn's 
Treaty with Indians, post roads. Southern plan- 
tation, and California gold fields. 
Study periods for ten days — apportioned among five 
groups. 

IV. Booklet on Reconstruction Period, original sketches 

for illustration, original designs for covers. 
Time — two recitation periods. 

Li&T R, Grade Seven 
History 
I. Series of Hero Books containing several stories each. 
11. Washington and Lincoln — February celebration. 
Class divided into two groups, one on each topic. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 137 




138 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Each pupil made a booklet. Each division made a 
sandtable illustration of the home of the hero. 
This study included a debate on the services per- 
formed by these two men. 

Time — study hour and part of recitation periods 
during week preceding holiday celebrated. 

III. Booklets on Farragut. 

IV. Series of posters showing principal events of each ad- 

ministration. Each pupil made two posters. 
Time — study period. 
V. Construction. Model of cotton gin, made by one boy 
at odd times. Model of carpet loom, made by 
a group of boys during study periods. 
Geography 
I. Series of problems on Asia, including individual posters 
and booklets on each of the topics : 
a. Holy Land 
h. India 

c. China 

d. Japan 

II. Sandtable illustrations to accompany each of four 
topics in I. (See Project No. i.) 

III. Series of individual booklets on Africa. 

IV. Series of individual booklets on Australia. 

Time for I, II, III, and IV — regular study period. 
V. Quick work at sandtable during recitation to illustrate 
topic under discussion, as Jordan River and Dead 
Sea. 

In addition to work in history and geography this 
class made booklets in English and nature study, 
a Color Note Book in art, and one or two sand- 
table illustrations for English. Their illustra- 
tion for the "Legend of Sleepy Hollow" was one 
of their best efforts. 



PROJECTS CARRIED OUT BY VARIOUS TEACHERS 1 39 

List S, Grade Seven 
History 
I. Series of booklets on Presidents. 
II. Series of booklets on Inventors. 
III. Series of booklets on Generals of Civil War. 
Geography 
I. Series of posters on products of Asia. 
II. Series of booklets on countries of Asia. 
III. Sandtable used for quickly made relief maps. 

In addition, in connection with art study, house built 
and furnished; posters on Halloween, Christ- 
mas, and Easter. 



CHAPTER V 

SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL » 

Project No. I 
Subject : 

Geography in the Seventh Grade. 

Field, Asia. 

Text, Tarr and McMurry, Book II, pp. 341-371. 

Problem of Project. — (a) To use illustrative 
methods which would employ a variety of forms of 
expression, {h) To secure self-expression and self- 
directed activity by throwing each pupil on his own 
responsibility in illustrating some phase of the sub- 
ject. 

Problem of Pupils. — To make either a poster or 
booklet or share in a sandtable illustration which 

1 The first eight of the following projects are taken directly from the 
report in which they first appeared. In these projects particular atten- 
tion is paid to the time element, since one purpose of the experiments 
was to discover whether these methods could be carried out without in- 
creasing the time allotted to the subject. Many of the other projects 
outlined were carried out as ordinary school work but did not form a 
part of the experimental studies. In these it is not always possible to 
give an accurate statement of the conditions affecting the results, and 
some items are necessarily omitted, such as the texts used, the time re- 
quired, and the number of pupils doing the work. The projects were 
all carried out under conditions common to all school rooms, one pur- 
pose of the entire study being to disturb the regular habits of the class 
as little as possible. 

140 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 141 

would illustrate the important features of the topic 
under discussion. 

Form of Illustration. — Posters, booklets, and sand- 
table with some construction. 

Conditions. — • Class of thirty-five pupils under a 
strong, experienced teacher. 

Time. — Regular lesson period of one-half hour 
daily. No extra time. Each phase of subject 
occupied from three to frvt periods, or from one and 
one-half hours to two and one-half hours. 

Organization of Class. — ■ Class divided into three 
groups. The first group made posters ; the second 
group made booklets ; and the third group made a 
sandtable illustration. Groups were rotated as a 
new topic was taken up. 

Organization of Subject-matter. — Four general 
topics were selected for study : Holy Land, India, 
China, and Japan. 

Text used first, followed by supplementary read- 
ing from every available source. 

After a general class discussion each pupil tried 
to express his idea of the important features by 
means of an illustration. 

Detail of Method. — Posters. Each pupil of the 
poster group was directed to prepare a poster which 
would illustrate his conception of the important 
features of the topic under consideration with refer- 
ence to physical characteristics, products, home life 
and industrial methods. These features were to be 



142 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

shown in pictures and sketches arranged upon a 
sheet of drawing paper, according to the worker's 
idea of good taste. 

After the posters were completed they were com- 
pared and criticized from the standpoint of topics 
illustrated, arrangement of pictures, and lettering. 
Each group made a marked advance over the pre- 
ceding group in the quality of the work done. Great 
improvement was shown by the first group in mak- 
ing the second set of posters after having had the 
benefit of the criticisms on the work of groups two 
and three, as well as upon their own. The growth 
in art appreciation was shown by the ability of the 
pupils to estimate their own productions before 
other comments were made. 

Detail of Method. — Booklets. The members of 
the booklet group were directed to prepare written 
descriptions of the important features of the country, 
giving especial attention to government, religious 
customs, and features not so easily portrayed with- 
out the use of words. The descriptions were to be 
illustrated as the writer desired and bound appro- 
priately. 

Each group made improvement on the work of 
the preceding group, especially in the character of 
illustrations and cover. The first covers were on 
white paper, some of them lettered in pencil and the 
lettering not very well done. The later covers were 
made of gray and green papers, lettered carefully 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 43 

in India ink, with the addition in some cases of an 
appropriate design. Some of the books on Japan 
had the title in Japanese characters, which the 
writers had learned by conferring with Japanese 
students in the University. 

Detail of Method. — Sandtable. The sandtable 
problems took the form of relief maps, which were 
placed in relation to the parallels and meridians. 
These maps were, of necessity, small, and only the 
main features and general contour of the land could 
be shown. Forests were indicated by groups of 
paper trees. Typical industries were shown by 
clay figures and by pictures of people at work set 
in the proper locahty. Flags bearing the national 
emblem were used to locate the important cities. 
Typical houses constructed from paper, wood or 
clay were shown in miniature. 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon geog- 
raphy. The making of posters gave opportunity 
for development in artistic appreciation. The writ- 
ing of the descriptive matter for the booklets fur- 
nished material for practice in composition. The 
sandmaps required practice in measurement in- 
cluding problems in longitude and latitude. The 
entire problem served as a motive for reading in the 
search for information needed in each project. The 
discovery of a practical use for printing in the 
making of posters and book covers, awakened a 
lively interest in learning to make good letters. 



144 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Project No. II 
Subject : 

History in Seventh Grade. 

Topic : Development of United States to 1850. 

Text — Gordy, pp. 185-281. 

Problem of Project. — To use sandtable illustra- 
tion as a means of emphasizing strong points in a 
general review. 

Problem of Pupils. — To make a relief map of 
the United States and show thereon typical features 
in the development of the country. 

Conditions. — Class of forty pupils under a strong, 
experienced teacher. 

Type of Illustration. — Relief map on sandtable. 

Time. — One lesson period for each of six groups. 
Period, one-half hour for study, one-half hour for 
recitation. Total time in class, six hours. Some 
details finished out of class time. 

Organization of Class. — Class divided into six 
groups. Each group had a definite part to perform 
and was allowed one lesson period in which to place 
its contribution on the table. 

Organization of Subject-matter. — As a form of 
review the subject was subdivided into topics cover- 
ing a period in national development and one 
incident chosen as typical of that period, — each 
incident to be represented by an appropriate illus- 
tration. 

Method in Detail. — Each group planned its illus- 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 45 

tration and put it in place. To the first group was 
assigned the task of preparing the map on the sand- 
table. The completed project showed William 
Penn making treaty with Indians, a corduroy post 
road, a Southern plantation, a fort at St. Louis, and 
the discovery of gold in California. 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon his- 
tory. Making the sandmap involved a review of 
the geography of the United States; explaining the 
various features gave practice in oral description. 
No written work accompanied this problem. Mak- 
ing the sandmap required considerable practice 
with numbers in getting the proper proportions. 

(See Figure 49.) 

Project No. Ill 
Subject : 

Geography — Sixth Grade. 

Field — Europe. 

Text — Tarr and McMurry, Book II, pp. 257-340. 

Problem of Project. — To discover to what extent 
the sandtable constructions could be used with good 
results in illustrating home and industrial life, special 
emphasis being laid upon knowledge of the people 
as an incentive for studying the physical conditions 
of the country. 

Problem of Pupils. — To build a miniature house 
of the type used in a given country, with charac- 
teristic furnishings and people in characteristic 



146 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 47 

costume, the house to be set up on the sandtable 
with appropriate surroundings. 

Form of Illustration. — Construction with the 
sandtable for a background. 

Conditions. — Class of thirty-eight pupils under 
a strong and experienced teacher. 

Time. — Full time devoted to entire subject was 
a little under six months ; to sub-topics an average 
of two weeks, varying with the importance of the 
country. Actual time on any one topic was the 
period before school morning and noon, and odd 
minutes during the day. Very little class time was 
used in this instance. Actual time spent amounted 
to less than one-half hour daily for eight or ten days 
by a group of five or six pupils. 

Some countries were not represented, through some 
accident to the construction or lack of energy on the 
part of the group, or were crowded out by the pressure 
of other work and the lure of the first spring days. 

Organization of Class. — The class was divided 
into groups of five or six pupils, each group con- 
structing a house, typical of a given country. As 
the houses were completed they were set up on the 
sandtable and some scene typical of the customs of 
the people was arranged as a background. 

While each house was being built, the physical 
features of the country it represented were studied 
in their relation to the home and industrial life of 
the people. 



148 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Organization of Subject-matter. — The countries 
were taken up in the order followed by the text. 
The text was supplemented by Carpenter's " Europe '' 
and numerous other descriptions found in the school 




Fig. 51. — a Dutch Farm. (See Project III. Page 148.) 

library and brought by the children from their home 
libraries. 

Method in Detail. — British Isles. Shown by 
sand map only. Cords stretched for parallels and 
meridians. Small representations to locate mining 
and manufacturing districts. Cities located by flags. 

Holland. Dutch house with red tile roof, interior 
decorations in Delft blue, tulip garden, dolls in Dutch 
costumes, windmill turned by wire spring, mill of 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



149 



clay modeled over a milk bottle, cattle modeled in 
clay. 

Northern Europe. Laplander's hut in mud and 
stones, reindeer and sled, people (dolls) in costume, 
entire scene snow covered. (See Frontispiece.) 




..mmlm'^^^^^^ 



Fig. 52. — Scenes in Italy. (See Project III. Page 149.) 



Southeastern Europe. Thatched cottage with ap- 
propriate surroundings. 

Germany. Castle on Rhine in concrete and stone, 
vineyards shown on hillsides. 

Italy. Sandmap on which were shown St. 
Gothard's tunnel through the Alps, Leaning Tower, 
Mt. Vesuvius, orange and lemon groves, a macaroni 
factory. (See Figure 52.) 



150 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon geog- 
raphy. The search for information concerning the 
different projects led to individual reading with a 
definite purpose. Measurements of various sorts 
required an application of knowledge of number. 
In clay modeling, in proportions of houses, etc., in 
selection of colors, and in general arrangement the 
child's artistic sense was given exercise. 

Project No. IV 
Subject : 

Geography in Sixth Grade. 

Field — Europe. 

Text — Tarr and McMurry, Book II, pp. 257-340. 

Problem of Project. — To use the preparation of 
an illustrated booklet as a motive for the study of 
geography. 

Problem of Pupils. — To cooperate with each other 
in collecting descriptive and illustrative material 
upon the various countries of Europe and to write 
upon one of the countries. 

Conditions. — Class of forty pupils under very 
strong teacher. 

Form of Illustration. — Individual booklets by 
each pupil. Various topics illustrated upon sand- 
table and by construction. 

Time. — Entire period for subject, six months ; 
for each country, one to three weeks according to 
its importance. Two weeks after the last class dis- 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 151 

cussion of the topic was allowed for completion of 
booklets. Time for sandtable — class hour for one or 
two lesson periods for a small group of pupils. In- 
dividual illustrations, as Irish jaunting car, were 
made out of class hours or at home. 

Organization of Class. — At the beginning of the 
study of Europe, each pupil was assigned one coun- 




FiG. 53. — Swedish Hay cart and Irish Jaunting Car. Sixth Grade. 
Columbia, Mo. 

try, each country being assigned to more than one 
pupil. 

As opportunity offered individual pupils were 
encouraged to construct illustrative models of fea- 
tures discussed in class ; for instance, types of vehicles 
in different countries. In some cases, as different 
countries were studied, a sandtable illustration was 
made by a selected group. 

Organization of Subject-matter. — After the assign- 
ment of topics for booklets, the study followed the 
order of the text. The text was supplemented by 



152 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

numerous books in the school Hbrary and by con- 
tributions from the class. All topics were studied 
alike by all pupils. 

Pupils were encouraged to pass on any useful 
material to others who were collecting material 
upon the topic. Selection was made from the list 
of assigned readings, and such selections as '^ A Dog 
of Flanders" and "A Leak in the Dike" were read 
when appropriate to the study of geography. 

Method in Detail. — In carrying out the above 
outline each pupil was made to feel responsibility 
for his particular topic to the fullest extent. Those 
assigned to the less interesting topics were helped 
to find the interesting features that careful study 
was sure to develop. 

In some cases where several were assigned to one 
country, each one wrote upon a special phase of the 
topic; as for example, ''The Art of Italy," ''Dairy- 
ing in Holland." Each pupil designed a cover for 
the booklet. These were for the most part made of 
neutral toned paper with well lettered, well placed 
titles for their only decoration. Each booklet con- 
tained several chapters or short sketches on various 
phases of the topic. These chapters were submitted 
to the teacher for criticism in most cases before 
being bound into the book. 

Correlation. — The basis of this study was geog- 
raphy. The writing of the subject-matter of the 
booklets supplied motive and material for work in 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 53 

English. The choice of appropriate material added 
interest to the reading while it enriched the geog- 
raphy. The selection of illustrations, the making 
of sketches, and the designing of the cover gave 
opportunity for applying the principles of design 
given in the regular art lessons. 

Other Projects Based upon the Study of Europe. — • 
One class which worked in a very small room could 
not make use of a sandtable. In this class emphasis 
was placed upon booklet and poster making and such 
forms of construction as space permitted. Figure 
No. 54 shows a few of the dolls dressed in peasant 
costumes by the girls. Figure No. 53 shows 
some typical European vehicles made by boys in 
this and other classes. These projects were chiefly 
individual contributions on which the work was done 
out of class time for the most part. 

One class made a sandtable picture of Holland, 
on a small square table. They first measured the 
map in the book and compared it with the size of 
the table to get the proper ratio of proportion. The 
table proved to be fifteen and one-half times the size 
of the map. The use of the fraction correlated well 
with their study of arithmetic. Their interest in 
Holland's dikes made them over-anxious to build 
before they had sufficient data. After getting it all 
in they found it necessary to take out part of the 
dike from those parts of the coast which need no 
protection, a mistake which impressed the truth 



154 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



155 



more deeply than if it had not been made. A boy 
came in triumph one morning with a herd of cattle 
— small pictures which he had cut out and mounted 
for the dairy. He was somewhat abashed when 
his attention was called to the fact that he had pic- 
tures of Jersey cows, but he quickly rallied, took his 




Fig. 55. — Holland's Dikes. Sixth Grade. Columbia, Mo. 

brush and some ink, and soon transformed the Jer- 
seys into Holland's favorite Holsteins. These inci- 
dents are a few of many which occurred in connection 
with every piece of work and in one way or another 
helped to impress items of interest. 

Project No. V 
Subject : 

History in Sixth Grade. 

Topic — Review of Early United States History. 
Text — Gordy, pp. 1-122. 

Problem of Project. — To test the value of poster 
making as a means of review. 



156 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Problem for Pupils. — To select and illustrate the 
important events of a given period. 

Conditions, — Class of thirty pupils under a re- 
sourceful teacher. 

Type of Illustration. — Poster sketches. 

Time. — One study period of thirty minutes for ac- 
tual work. Problem outlined in one lesson. Posters 
presented for discussion at next recitation period. 

Organization of Class. — • Class of thirty pupils 
divided into three groups each under a captain who 
assigned topics. Groups had opportunity to discuss 
division of subject into topics. 

Organization of Subject Matter. — Subject divided 
into three topics, exploration, settlement, and col- 
onization. Each topic subdivided by groups into 
subjects for individual posters. 

Method in Detail. — Each member of a group made 
sketches for the topics assigned to him. At the reci- 
tation period these were hung in order and the story 
they told related by different members of the group. 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon his- 
tory. Making the sketches called into action the 
knowledge of art principles gained in drawing lessons. 
It required individual reading for information. 

Project No. VI 
Subject : 

History in Fifth Grade. 

Topic — Lewis and Clark Expedition. 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



157 



Text — ^ Our Country's Story, p. 176, and supple- 
mentary readings. 
Problem of Project. — To add interest to the study 
of history and discover to what extent a sandtable 




Fig. 56. — Lewis and Clark Expedition. 

This was the first illustrative problem undertaken by this class, and no sandtable had 
yet been provided. A boy offered to bring a box from home. It proved to be a small 
mortar box. It was not beautiful, but the picture made in it by the children made up for 
anything the box lacked. (See Project VI. Page 157.) 

problem could be used to correlate various phases of 
subject matter. 

Problem for Pupils. — To represent on the sand- 
table the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 

Conditions. — • Class of thirty pupils under an ex- 
perienced teacher. 

Form of Illustration. — Sandtable illustration. 



158 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Time. — Three and four pupils working at one 
time in odd minutes. Total time about one-half 
hour daily for a period of eight days. 

Organization of Class. — Class divided into four 
groups, each group having a definite part of the sub- 
ject to illustrate. Different members of the groups 
worked at the table for short periods. 

Organization of Subject Matter. — Topic divided 
into four parts, each part assigned to one group, as 
follows : physical features, route from St. Louis 
to Council Bluffs, route from Council Bluffs to 
mountains, route across mountains to coast. Each 
pupil wrote a description of the part assigned to 
his group. 

Method in Detail. — After sufficient reading to 
become familiar with the main points of the story 
and a general discussion as to possible methods, 
specific topics were assigned to small groups. These 
topics included relative proportions and distances 
on the map, modeling the physical features in relief, 
making of boats, cabins, huts, Indian camp, etc., 
modeling human figures, horses, and wild animals, 
planting grass seed for prairies, representing differ- 
ent forms of vegetation in different sections, setting 
flags and sign-posts to trace the route of the ex- 
pedition. 

The completed illustration showed the principal 
events of the journey and the general appearance of 
the country from the Mississippi to the coast. 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 59 

Correlation. — This experiment was based upon 
history. Giving the proper background to the story- 
required almost equal emphasis on the geographical 
features of the country traversed, with some study 
of the habits of the Indian tribes encountered. The 
necessity for accurate information required extensive 
reading. TelHng the story orally and in writing 
gave practice in English. Reducing the measure- 
ments of the map to the proper proportions for the 
sandtable gave practice in arithmetic. Growing 
grass for the prairies and representing trees on the 
western slope directed attention to the different sorts 
of vegetation and the reason for the difference. 

Project No. VII 
Subject : 

History in Fifth Grade. 

Topic — Colonial Life. 

Text — ■ Our Country's Story, pp. 83-88. 

Problem of Project. — To give a sense of reality to 
printed descriptions through the use of representative 
constructions. 

Problem for Pupils. — To build and furnish a Co- 
lonial kitchen. 

Conditions. — Class of thirty pupils under young 
teacher with one year's experience. 

Type of Illustration. — Construction. 

Time. — Study hour and odd minutes of small 
groups for period of one week. 



i6o 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




Fig. 57. — Colonial Home Life. (See Project VII. Page 159.) 




Fig. 58. — Another Colonial House. (See Project VII. Page 159.) 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL l6l 

Organization of Class. — After a general discussion 
of plans for the house and its furnishing, the pupils 
chose parts which they wished to do. 

Organization of Subject Matter. — Construction was 
planned to show the house, fireplace and cooking 
utensils, furniture and clothing. 

Detail of Method. — The house was made from a 
box by ^YQ boys. Various cooking utensils were 
whittled from wood according to descriptions found 
in the books read. Dolls were dressed in Colonial 
costumes by the girls. Books and pictures were 
studied for suggestions and effects. 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon his- 
tory. It involved careful reading and some measure- 
ment, but other than these incidental connections no 
emphasis was placed upon related subjects. 

Project No. VIII 
Subject : 

Geography in Fifth Grade. 

Topic — Panama Canal. 

Texts — Tarr and McMurry, Book II, p. 236. 
Carpenter's South America. 

Problem of Project. — To use a concrete illustration 
in explaining the operation of canal locks. 

Problem for Pupils. — To build the Panama Canal 
in miniature and operate the locks. 

Conditions. — Class of thirty pupils under strong 
teacher. 



l62 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



Form of Illustration. — Construction in cement, and 
booklets. 

Time. — Work done by six boys working during 
half -hour class period during a period of three weeks. 




Fig. 5g. — Panama Canal and Locks. The Locks 
at the Other End of the Table were Made to Oper- 
ate. (See Project VIII. Page 163.) 



A mistake caused a serious discouragement and the 
work rested for about one week. 

Organization of Class. — Two groups of three boys 
worked in turns during the regular class period 
upon the construction on the sandtable. Individual 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 63 

pupils contributed minor features, as model of steam 
shovel. Entire class prepared booklets describing 
the Canal. 

Organization of Subject Matter. — Study of the 
canal used as an introduction to South America. 
Entire class read text and as many supplementary 
books in addition to Carpenter as they could find. 
General class discussions followed the reading. 

Method in Detail. — After studying the general 
facts concerning the canal, the construction of locks, 
and the use of goncrete, the canal was constructed 
by the boys. 

The construction involved much planning and 
careful measurement. When they thought they had 
completed their work, water was poured into the lake 
but it was immediately absorbed by the too-porous 
surface of the cement. This required a resurfacing 
of the lake with a harder mixture which proved satis- 
factory. When water was poured in a second time, 
the lake held, but the gates proved faulty, and a new 
plan was necessary. About a week passed before the 
boys recovered from this second disappointment, and 
revived their courage sufficiently to try some new 
suggestions. Success finally crowned their efforts 
and on visitors' day the committee in charge operated 
the locks and took the two-inch boat up and down, 
not once but many times, while they proudly ex- 
plained the principles of lock-building to their ad- 
miring parents. 



164 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Correlation. — This problem was based upon geog- 
raphy. The building of the model and the writing 
of the description furnished motive for reading. 
The building of the model involved a great deal of 
careful measurement and very practical arithmetic. 
The writing of the description furnished subject 
matter for language work. The making of the cover 
for the booklet, as well as the selection and arrange- 
ment of the illustrations within, involved principles 
of design. 

Other Canal Projects. — In additioji to the problem 
described as Project VIII, other classes have studied 
the Panama Canal by similar methods with varying 
details, several of them under the direction of the 
same teacher. Of this series the first, shown in Figure 
60, made no attempt at perfect locks, the general 
principle upon which they are constructed being 
all that was stressed. The sandtable project, how- 
ever, made a deep impression upon the oncoming 
class of fourth-grade boys who, when their turn came 
the next year, were anxious to build better than their 
predecessors. Their success is described in Project 
No. VIII. 

The last of the series recently completed is built 
with the hope that it may bear transportation to the 
state fair. In this instance paraffin has been used to 
make the locks water-tight. One tier of locks is 
fitted with gates which open in the center and 
swing inward as in the real canal. This form of 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



165 



lock being hard to manage in the material used, 
another tier of locks is fitted with a sliding gate 
such as is used in Western irrigating systems, and 
made water-tight. Through this tier the boats 




Fig. 60. 



A First Attempt at Lock-building. (See Other Canal Projects, 
Page 164.) 



are raised and lowered from ocean to lake and 
back again. 

In these canal projects one chief weakness notice- 
able is the disproportionate height of mountains in 
relation to width of plains. This comes about, no 
doubt, through the necessity for showing individual 



1 66 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

features quite out of proportion in order to make 
them sufficiently realistic. This weakness tends to 
disappear as the work progresses. If we search our 
own mental pictures, however, we will doubtless find 
them made up of exaggerated details. For example, 
California in 1849 is to most people a mining camp 
only. Though this may seem at first an argument 
against illustrative methods, we must admit that such 
an exaggerated detail is to be chosen rather than the 
idea that Maine is pink and that cities are black dots. 

Project No. IX 

Subject. A Lumber Camp. 

(See Figure 61.) 

Problem of Project. — To test the value of the 
sandtable as an aid to composition work. 

Problem of Pupils. — To study the characteristics 
of a lumber camp in Maine, build a miniature camp 
upon the sandtable, and write a description of a 
lumber camp. 

Conditions. — Class of thirty -five sixth-grade 
pupils. 

Organization of Class. — All members of the class 
contributed to the building of the model camp. The 
project as a whole was organized by teacher and 
pupils together and parts assigned to individuals 
and small groups. 

Method in Detail. — After the selection of the 
topic, the class read Carpenter's description of a 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



167 




1 68 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

lumber camp and studied various pictures. The 
building of the model involved a review of the 
geography of the region near Bangor, Maine, where 
the camp was to be located, a study of the various 
trees to be found in the region, the method of build- 
ing the cabin, the sort of tools and machinery needed 
by lumbermen, and their dress, habits, and character. 
The completed table showed a cabin placed in a 
forest containing several varieties of timber, a 
flume, an ice road, and a sawmill. 

In the composition work which followed, each pupil 
imagined himself to be visiting at the camp for a 
week. He kept a diary of the events of the days 
spent there, describing the operations of the lumber- 
men. He wrote one letter to some one at home de- 
scribing his impressions. This project was among the 
first attempts by this class in the use of illustrative 
methods, and the results were highly satisfactory to 
both teacher and pupils. 

Another Lumber Camp. — Figure 62 shows a 
miniature lumber camp arranged by a fifth-grade 
class as a side light on a topic in geography. In 
this instance the topic was assigned by the teacher 
to a group of boys who prepared their illustration 
somewhat crudely. After the class had examined 
the work another group asked permission to make 
another illustration, as they felt sure they could make 
a sawmill that would work. The illustration shows 
the work of the second group. One boy brought a 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



169 




lyo ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

toy engine operated by alcohol. From a piece of 
tin, a spool, a string, a screw, and a block of wood, 
they constructed a circular saw which, when driven 
by the small steam engine, would saw cardboard 
and thin pieces of wood. Their pride in their success 
was most stimulating, both to themselves and to 
others. 

Project No. X 

Subject. The Rotation and Revolution of the 
Earth. 

(See Figure 63.) 

Problem of Project. — To find a way of making this 
troublesome idea clearer to a group of sixth-grade 
pupils in the rural school. 

Problem of Pupils. — To make a simple piece of 
apparatus which would show the two motions of the 
earth. 

Conditions. — A one-room rural school without 
wall maps, globe, or other common equipment, and 
without funds with which to purchase materials. 

Detail of Method. — On finding the class troubled 
by the problem in question, it was suggested that 
they find a long stick and fasten one end loosely to a 
heavy block of wood so that it could be revolved 
around the fastening. At the outer end of the stick 
they were to set a wire bent at an angle of 23^ degrees 
to represent the axis of the earth. At the inner end 
of the stick they were to fasten a small candle to rep- 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 71 

resent the sun. It was agreed to use an apple for the 
earth. 

No further directions were given. Several boys 
agreed to find materials and have the apparatus ready 
when the supervisor came again. They found a 
scrap of 4 X 4 lumber and a piece of yardstick 
which they arranged as directed. The candle was 
supported by a small nail driven through from the 
lower side of the stick beside the nail which fastened 
the stick to the block. A very crooked piece of bail- 
ing wire, only partially straightened, did duty for the 
axis. On the next visit of the supervisor an apple 
was impaled on the wire, the candle lighted, and the 
apple revolved about the candle, or better the earth 
revolved about the sun, with the wire axis pointed 
steadily to the north. At first, to keep the axis in 
proper position, a string was tied to the north pole 
and fastened to a nail on the north wall which did 
duty for the North Star, as a suggestion of the 
mysterious force which pulls the north pole always 
in the same direction. The idea established, the 
string became superfluous and was discarded. The 
"earth" was placed in various relations to the "sun'' 
and the seasons discussed. The delighted and en- 
lightened expression on the faces of the children as 
they said, "Oh, now I see how it is,'' seemed ample 
justification of the method. 

The apparatus was to be given to the supervisor 
when they were through with it, but soon afterwards 



172 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

the school had a night visit from tramps who used it 
for kindhng. The boys offered to make another and 
better one for the supervisor, which they did, its 
photograph being shown in Figure 63. The first 
model was very rough and crude, but the second was 
made from better material and put together more 




Fig. 63. — Apparatus Showing Motions of the Earth. Made by boys of Carlisle 
Rural School, Boone County, Missouri. (See p. 170.) 

accurately. The wire was straight and bent to better 
angles. A hole was bored part way through the long 
stick so that the candle could be set directly over the 
nail upon which the stick revolved, thus putting the 
"sun" in the exact center instead of a httle to one 
side. Instead of an apple, a rubber ball was pur- 
chased and the continents outhned upon it with ink. 
These improvements in the second rendering may 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 73 

be counted as evidence of the truth of the statement 
above (sandtable criticism) that the crudity of free 
expression does not estabHsh low ideals of workman- 
ship. This and many similar instances have con- 
vinced the author that normal children want to '^do 
better the next time/' when the work in hand is on 
the level of their appreciation and is of interest to 
them. 

Project No. XI 

Subject. Courtship of Miles Standish. 
(See Figure 64.) 

Problem of Project. — To stimulate an emotional 
appreciation of the poem through free expression in 
picture-making. 

Problem of Pupils. — To express their ideas of 
various situations in the poem by means of pictures. 

Conditions. — A class of sixth-grade pupils working 
in the room with a fifth grade under a resourceful 
teacher. 

Detail of Method. — After reading a part of the 
poem and discussing a particular situation and the 
probable feehng of the characters, each member of 
the class tried to express his idea in a free-hand sketch. 
After the whole poem had been studied the pupils 
were asked to select passages which they Hked and 
illustrate them. A few specimens of the results are 
shown in the accompanying illustration. These 
sketches were not made as a part of the drawing lesson 



174 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




Fig. 64. — Miles Standish. 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 75 

and some members of the class had never tried to 
draw before. In many instances the work was very 
crude in technique, but nearly every one expressed 
well the downcast attitude of John Alden on his un- 
willing errand, the first glimpse of the Indians by the 
army, and other striking scenes. The act of making 
the picture deepened the impressions gained through 
the reading and intensified the emotional response 
through the necessity, for the time being, of taking 
on the personality of the character '^and trying to 
feel as he felt.'' 

Project No. XII 

Subject. Nature Study Books on Trees. 

Problem of Project. — To test the effect of throw- 
ing pupils wholly upon their own responsibility in 
composition work. 

Problem of Pupils. — To preserve in attractive 
form the data collected in a study of trees and com- 
plete the booklet without special criticism from the 
teacher. 

Method in Detail. — The plan for these Tree Book- 
lets had been outHned as the crowning effort of the 
year, when it was decided to test the power of the 
pupils to judge their own work and bring it to a high 
standard. The plan included free-hand sketches of 
various twigs and buds, a sketch of the tree, a descrip- 
tion of its habits of growth and its usefulness. An 
appropriate cover was to be designed under the 



176 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




fc 5 3 

*5^ 




? <c 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 77 

guidance of the drawing teacher. Enthusiasm was 
keen to make these books exceptionally fine. Usu- 
ally the teacher inspected a rough draft of the written 
work before it was copied on the final paper. In 
this case it was agreed that the pupils should com- 
plete the book, even to the final tying of the leaves 
into the cover, before submitting it for the teacher's 
approval. They were to be free to ask advice when- 
ever they were in doubt, to consult the dictionary 
for doubtful spellings, and in other ways to behave 
as do people outside of school when they have an 
important piece of work on hand. They were to 
think first and be sure of themselves, instead of de- 
pending on someone to tell them what to say. 

Results. — The results were highly satisfactory. 
The books were most creditable both inside and out. 
In the composition work nearly one-third had no mis- 
takes in spelling or in the punctuation and grammati- 
cal forms for which the children, in consideration of 
their training in English, could be held accountable. 

Project No. XIII 

Subject. The Evolution of Methods of Travel. 
(See Figures 66-80.) 

Problem of Project. — To give to sixth-grade pupils 
a general idea of the steps in the development of 
methods of travel by land and water. 

Problem of Pupils. — To find out the particulars of 
some one method of travel, make a model of the 



178 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



179 






Fig. O7. — A Prairie Schooner. 

vehicle, and explain its use to the other members of 
the class. 

Conditions. — A class of thirty-five pupils under a 
strong teacher. 

Organization of Class. — Class divided into two 
divisions, one to study travel by land; the other, 
travel by water. Each division subdivided into 




Fig. 68. — Travel by Steam. 



i8o 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




Fig. 69. ^ An Electric Car. 




Fig. 70. — An Automobile. 




Fig. 71. — An Airship. 

/ 



small groups of two 
or three pupils to 
whom was assigned 
some one phase of 
the subject. 

Detail of Method. 
— After a general 
discussion of the 
subject, the class 
was requested to 
find out as many 
interesting items as 
possible, to con- 
tribute to a second 
discussion a day or 
two later. After the 
second discussion it 
was possible to make 
a list of projects and 
apportion them to 
the several small 
groups for individual 
study. Then began 
a vigorous searching 
of all books which 
would give further 
information on the 
topics assigned. In 
the words of the 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



I5l 



teacher, '^They kept the path to the library 
hot." 

As soon as sufficient data were secured by a group, 
work was begun upon the model. This involved 




Fig. 72. — On a Log. On a Hollow Log. 

planning what to make and how to make it, what 
material to use and where to get it. In many in- 
stances the data secured 'proved insufficient and 
another trip to the library was demanded and more 




Car.oe and Rowboat. 




Fig. 74. — A Greek Galley 




Fig. 75. — A Sailboat. 
182 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



183 



careful reading followed. In other instances the first 
attempt at construction failed to meet the ideals of 
the makers and they tried again before they were 
wilHng to exhibit their production to the class. 




Fig. 76. — A Stern- wheel and Horse-power. 

It is impossible in this brief description to do more 
than indicate the scope of the problem. The accom- 
panying illustrations, Figs. 66 to 80 inclusive, are 
made from photo- 
graphs of the results 
as the author saw 
them. The pride of 
the children in their 
finished work was 
equaled only by the 
enthusiasm with 
which they had 
worked and the joy 

with which they an- Fig. 77. - River steamboat. 




1 84 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



ticipated the next '^ problem J ^ 
would have been worth the 




Battlesliip. 



This attitude of mind 
effort even had the 
information gained 
been less valuable 
and the develop- 
ment in resourceful- 
ness less fruitful. 

A project of this 
sort encourages in- 
dependent study 
and helps the pupil 
not only to rely upon 
himself but to make 
sure of his informa- 
tion. Each group is anxious to make a good show- 
ing before the class. '^The feeling of the audience" 
is strong in such instances, in contrast to the feel- 
ing aroused by the 
ordinary quiz recita- 
tion when the pupil 
is conscious that 
pupils as well as 
teacher know all he 
knows and perhaps 
more. Under such 
circumstances he 
cannot speak with 
the same enthusiasm 
he feels when he is fig. ^g. — ocean Liner. 





Fig. 8o. — Motor Boat. 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 85 

imparting interest- 
ing information to 
an eager audience. 
Such projects also 
apply and test the 
pupil's knowledge in 
other fields, as, meas- 
urement, art values, use of clear, well-chosen English 
in explanation, etc. 

Suggested topics for similar treatment : 

Evolution of methods of measuring time. 

Evolution of methods of lighting. 

Evolution of methods of writing. 

Evolution of methods of cooking. 

Evolution of harvesting machines. 

Evolution of various woodworking tools. 

Evolution of various modern inventions. , 

Project No. XIV 

Subject. A Study of Bridge Building. 
(See Figures 81-86.) 

Problem of Project. — To open the eyes of the chil- 
dren that they may see deeper than the surface of 
some of our everyday conveniences, and to awaken 
an interest in industrial problems. 

Problem of Pupils. — To construct a model of 
some one type of bridge and study its value and 
use. 

Conditions. — Problem under the direction of the 



1 86 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 87 

principal of a building who taught the seventh grade 
and assigned parts to other grades. 

Organization of Classes. 

First grade — Paper cutting lessons on monkey 
bridge and grapevine bridge. 

Second grade — Study of the beaver and building 
of a beaver dam on the sandtable. 

Third grade — Bridge from fallen trees, with a 
study of corduroy roads. 

Fourth grade — Single span wooden bridge. 

Fifth grade took no part, being engaged upon a 
Panama Canal project. 

Sixth grade — Covered bridge and cement bridge. 

Seventh grade — Drawbridge, jack-knife bridge, 
suspension bridges of several types. 

In the upper grades projects were apportioned to 
groups of three boys each, the study being under- 
taken as distinctively a boys' problem. 

Method in Detail. — In the upper grades the sub- 
ject was discussed as an industry in which some 
of the boys might some day be engaged, which 
gave a prevocational flavor to the work. Con- 
nection was made with other subjects where op- 
portunity offered, — for example, the suspension 
bridge in the mountains of China, shown in the 
illustration. 

Each group made a study of its particular bridge 
and made plans for the construction of a model. The 
seventh-grade boys worked out their models in the 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



189 



manual arts shop, 
under the direction 
of the instructor. 
The other models 
were made in the 
regular classrooms. 
In each room the 
projects were made 
a subject of class 
study. The study 
developed much 
material suitable 
for composition 
work, but as it was 
undertaken near 
the close of the 
year, time would 
not permit an ex- 
haustive use of its 
possibilities. When 
the projects were 
complete they were 
assembled on three 
sandtables in the 
lower hall. The ac- 
companying illus- 
trations are taken 
from photographs 
of these sandtables. 




190 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



Other Bridge Problems. — A study of bridges was 
made in certain other schools, some of the results 
of which are shown in the accompanying illustrations. 




Fig. 84. 



Suspension Bridge. Sixth Grade, Humboldt School, 
St. Joseph, Mo. 



Full details are not available as to the organization 
of these projects, but they were made a part of class 
work to some extent. In addition clubs were organ- 




FiG. 85. — Block Signal, Swing Bridge, and Drawbridge. B. Fifth Grade, 
McKinley School, St. Joseph, Mo. (See Project 14. Page 185.) 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL IQI 




Fig. 86. — Suspension Bridge. Sixth Grade, Garfield School. St. Joseph, Mo. 

ized among boys having a certain sort of building 
toys and a high degree of interest generated in the 
mechanical possibihties of these toys. The pictures 
speak for themselves and need no comment. 

Project No. XV 

Subject. A Coal Mine. 

(See Figure 87.) 

Problem of Project. — To test the power of con- 
crete expression, to awaken interest, and arouse 
energy. 

Problem of Pupils. — To build upon the sandtable 
a miniature coal mine, in connection with a study 
of industries in geography. 

Conditions. — A class of twenty fifth-grade pupils 
working with a sixth-grade class under a strong 



192 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 




SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 93 

teacher. This was the first attempt by this class 
at work of this sort. No materials were provided 
and the table used was a makeshift. 

Method in Detail. — After a discussion of the prob- 
lem and plans for its solution, the boys brought in 
some yellow clay from a corner of the school lot, 
there being no sand available. Interest waxed strong, 
and the bad boy who was a frequent truant and an 
unwilling worker when in school, became the leader 
in the building process. He not only worked when 
others worked, but stayed after school and only left 
reluctantly when the teacher was ready to close the 
doors. He made a journey ten miles into the country 
on Saturday to get some definite details to "show 
you how it ought to be.^' 

The finished model as shown in Figure 2>'j repre- 
sented a drift mine properly ventilated with the 
air shaft shown at the left above the shed. By means 
of a string attached to the two ends of the coal car, 
when full of coal it could be rolled out of the mine 
and made to dump its cargo and return for more. 
By an ingenious placing of a hole in the top behind the 
sign, it was possible for the operator to refill the car 
while the visitor's attention was distracted by other 
details. The car would then roll out and deposit 
a second load, and leave the visitor wondering how 
many small miners were really at work inside. To all 
of us, big and little, the creations of our hand§ are 
precious, and the miner with the lamp on his cap 



194 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

does not appear in the illustration because the photo- 
graph was taken on Saturday when the miner was 
packed away in cotton for safe-keeping. He was only 
a clay miner, but he was very real and precious to the 
children. 

Project No. XVI 

Subject. A Circus Parade. 

(See Figure SS.) 

Problem of Project. — To use the interest in animals 
and the circus as a motive for art, geography, and 
composition. 

Problem of Pupils. — To find out interesting facts 
concerning amimals ; to draw and make in wood one 
or more animals. 

Conditions. — One of the regular projects of a 
feachers' training class in handwork, also worked 
out by several groups of children. This report in- 
cludes items common to all. 

Organization of Class. — ■ The subject of the circus 
animals was discussed by the class as a whole. 
Animals to be made were selected and assigned to 
individuals. Information concerning the animal 
assigned was collected by the student and preserved 
in the form of a booklet. 

Method in Detail. — In the discussion, attention 
was directed to the habits of the animal in question, 
its habitat, food, size, color, value to man and nature 
of the value. The various members of the class 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 



195 




196 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

consulted all available sources of information for 
the facts desired, they brought in all available pic- 
tures and began sketching the animal assigned. 
When a fairly good sketch was secured, a pattern 
was made by drawing a profile outline of the animal 
into a rectangle proportioned to suit the extreme 
length and height of the average of the species, using 
the ratio of one inch to a foot of the actual measure- 
ments. (The pattern sketch is not a perspective 
sketch and all four feet of the animal must touch the 
base line, otherwise the animal will not stand when 
completed.) From the pattern sketch, section pat- 
terns were made, one for head, body, and tail, with- 
out legs ; one for each side with body and legs but 
without head or tail. The three patterns were then 
drawn upon thin wood and sawed out with a cop- 
ping saw. (It is important in placing the patterns 
on the wood to see that all frail parts, as legs and tails, 
are laid lengthwise of the grain of the wood.) After 
the parts were sawed out, they were nailed together 
and the animal colored with crayon or water color. 
In the making of the books which accompanied this 
work each student was left free to write about one or 
more animals as desired. Some books gave extended 
details concerning one animal. Some students ex- 
changed data and wrote about several animals under 
an appropriate title. 

Correlation. — This project makes a strong appeal 
to boys in about the fifth or sixth grade. This is 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 97 

an important item, since so much of the usual school 
work is somewhat girlish in character and fails to 
attract boys of this age. The project may be closely 
related to geography by emphasis upon the habitat 
of the animal. The book may include color maps 
on printed or hectographed outlines, showing the 
regions in which the animal is to be found. The 
project may be closely correlated with arithmetic 
by studying the commercial value of the animal and 
its products. The information so gained may be 
made a part of the booklet. Gaining the needed 
information gives a strong motive to reading and may 
be used by the teacher as an opportunity for teaching 
"the pupil how to set about an independent investi- 
gation and how to arrange the data collected. This 
involves both reading and composition. The art 
element is promounced in this project. In addition 
to the sketching of the outline, making the patterns 
involves a careful observation of anatomy in order 
to get good shoulder and rump lines on the sides. 
The coloring of the animal is also a good art 
problem. 

In the sawing out and putting together of parts, 
this project closely approaches the technical field, 
and with or without the correlated bookwork, forms 
a very suitable project for beginning woodwork. 
Used with the accompanying bookwork and as the 
motive for such work, the project belongs in the class 
of work described earlier as representative problems, 



IQO ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

since, when the project is used in this way, the current 
of thought flows from the handwork to the related 
subject matter. The project may, however, be 
used in a purely illustrative sense when it will serve 
as a means of adding interest to regular subject 
matter, — for example, at the time when the class 
is studying the animals of North America in geog- 
raphy. The project may also be used in modified 
form for younger pupils by making the animals of 
cardboard instead of wood. 

Project No. XVII 

Subject. The Planing Mill. 

Problem of Project. — To show whether the attempt 
to construct would help develop clear ideas about 
complicated machines, thus justifying the process as 
a method of study for beginners. 

Problem of Student. — To construct a rough model 
of a machine which would show its general propor- 
tions and chief characteristics. 

Conditions. — A group of four students in a teach- 
ers' training class, composed of three young women 
who knew nothing of the machines used in a planing 
mill, and one man, a graduate student in Manual 
Arts. The attitude of the man at the beginning was 
highly skeptical. Being acquainted with the intrica- 
cies of the machines he knew that they could not be 
adequately represented by rough models and he was 
troubled about the details. The attitude of the 



SELECTED PROJECTS IN DETAIL 1 99 

young women was that of curiosity and interest in 
a new idea, accompanied by bewilderment over its 
complexity. 

Organization. — The members were to work in 
pairs, each pair to make models of two machines. 
The machines selected were planer, circular saw, 
band saw, and sanding machine. 

Detail of Method. — The group was sent to visit 
the manual training shop to inspect all machines and 
get data for making models of the ones assigned. 

On appearance in the classroom afterwards there 
was still evident bewilderment as to a method of at- 
tack. All assented to the remark of one student, 
"It seemed plain enough while we were in the shop 
and they were explaining the machines to us." After 
permitting some random attempts the instructor 
suggested a second visit to the shop which was eagerly 
agreed upon. On the return to the classroom it was 
evident that they had really seen on the second trip, 
and the building of the models began in earnest. 
Only the main features of each were attempted. 
The young women had considerable difficulty in 
adjusting belts and keeping the proper relationship 
between wheels and shafts. The man had trouble 
in trying to forget some of the things he knew and to 
put himself on the level of the untaught child. He 
was inclined to try to show many minor details un- 
important in the project in hand, though useful in 
the real machine. 



200 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Results. — When the project was completed the 
students were asked to express themselves freely as 
to their gain. The three young women enthusias- 
tically agreed that the planing mill was now a famihar 
friend and not a mystery ; that they had gained a 
general idea which, though incomplete in detail, was 
truthful and which gave the term ''planing mill" 
a new and interesting meaning to them. The man, 
though not having added to his personal knowledge 
of the machines in question, admitted that the 
method was helpful to the beginner who knew nothing 
of machines and that it was likely to engender a de- 
sire for further study. 

This project, though not the work of children as 
are all others here outlined, is offered as evidence that 
the process of making aids much in the study of many 
problems. The group felt satisfied at the end of the 
first visit that they had learned much about wood- 
working machines. The attempt to give tangible 
expression to their ideas proved to them that they 
had not observed as carefully as they had supposed. 

The author wishes to raise the question whether 
or not much of our teaching falls short of its purpose 
and fails to make a lasting impression upon the 
children because we stop too early and leave the 
children at the point reached by this group at the end 
of the first visit. Had nothing more been done in 
this case, the impressions would soon have faded 
into vague nothingness. 



CHAPTER VI 

REPORT OF TEACHERS, WITH SUMMARY i 

The following questions were put to the teachers 
who assisted in working out the projects. Ten 
teachers contributed to the work. 



Give length of study and recitation periods in history and 
geography. 



History 

study 

recitation 

total study and recitation 
Geography 

study 

recitation 

total study and recitation 







No 


Mm 


. Daily 




go 


60 


50 


40 


30 


25 


20 




I 






2 
4 


5 
5 


I 
I 


I 


4 


5 












I 






2 


5 


2 




I 




I 


3 


5 






5 


5 











Average daily period for each subject 58 minutes. 

^This report is taken, without modification, from the thesis where it 
first appeared. 



202 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

II 

Did you use extra time for illustrative work, over and 
above the total for study and recitation, and how much? 

Answers vary from "none at all" to "one hour some 
weeks, but not every week." 

Ill 

Was the extra time taken in school hours or out of school 
hours ? Answer : In school hours — 4 ; out of school hours 
— 5 ; varied — i. 

IV 

Did the illustrative work interfere with work in other sub- 
jects? Answer: (i) By taking time from them: No — 10. 
(2) By distracting attention : No — 6 ; a Uttle — 4. 

V 

Was the interference justified by the increased interest in 
the work? Answer: Yes — 10 (with emphasis). 

VI 

Has illustrative work had a tendency to increase interest ? 
Answer: (i) In the subject, yes — 10; in related reading, 
yes — 10 ; in art appreciation, yes — 10 ; in the interest of 
patrons, yes — 7 ; some — i ; not sure — 2. 

VII 

Has- illustrative work helped to hold the interest of pupils 
otherwise indifferent ? Answer : Yes — 7 ; a few — 2 ; 
nearly always — i. 

VIII 

Have illustrative methods helped any backward pupils to 
a clearer understanding of these or other subjects ? Answer : 
Yes — 7; some — 2; not sure — i. 




203 



204 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



IX 

Does the use of booklets increase interest in composition, 
i.e. in having something interesting to say and in saying it 
well, not merely in making a pretty book ? Answer : Yes, 
decidedly — 3 ; yes, for most pupils — i ; yes — 5 ; not 
sure — I. 

X 

Have you noticed any differences between boys and girls 
in interest in illustrative work? In preference for different 
forms of work ? Answer : Boys prefer building — 5 ; girls 
are more careful — 4 ; girls stick to their work better — 2 ; 
girls like posters and books better — 3 ; not much difference 

— 5- 

The following table shows the percentage of failures in 
grades five, six, and seven for the last year preceding and 
the two years following the introduction of illustrative 
methods. 



Grade 


1910-11 


1911-12 


1912-13 


Five 

Six 

Seven ...... 


28.7% 
9.7% 
8.9% 


12.5% 
8.2% 

4-5% 


11.0% 

5-3% 
2.0% 



These figures were based upon general averages for all 
subjects. The figures for 191 2-13 include some conditioned 
pupils in grades five and six. (See comment on page 208 
as to the relative value of these figures.) 

Summary. — The problem which forms the basis 
of this study, taken with its limitations, may be re- 
stated thus : 



REPORT OF TEACHERS, WITH SUMMARY 205 




206 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

To discover the extent to which handwork may 
be used in the ordinary schoolroom (by teachers 
having no technical training) for the purpose of fa- 
ciHtating the study of geography and history, yet 
without interfering with other required work, or 
adding greatly to expense. 

The results of the experiments seem to justify 
certain conclusions : 

(i) Concerning expense : 

The figures here given are for the work of the 
second year ; figures for the first year's work were 
not available. The first year's expense included 
lumber for sandtables, which were built by the 
janitors, and one small bill for thin wood and paper. 
The total was less than the total for the second year. 

Expense, for second year : 

Amount spent for equipment $42.00 

(Including saws, hammers, jars for clay) 

Amount spent for material 11.76 

Total expense $53-76 

Number of pupils enrolled in classes suppHed 

with material 1018 

Average cost per pupil $.05 

Cost of material per pupil .01 

Comment upon these figures is unnecessary. 
(2) Concerning time required for illustrative work : 
The question of actual time spent upon illustrative 
work, especially upon cooperative problems such as 



WITH SUMMARY 207 

sandtable illustrations, is very hard to calculate with 
great accuracy. This is so for the following reasons : 

Pupils must work upon these problems in small 
groups. In order to accomplish any large project 
in reasonable time the groups must follow each other 
in quick succession. To this end the ''odd minutes'' 
which individual pupils find at various periods in the 
day, and which otherwise are frequently worse than 
wasted, may be used upon illustrative problems to 
good advantage without affecting the general pro- 
gram in any way. 

The teacher may know very positively that the work 
has not been done wholly during the period and that 
it has not "stolen time" from another subject, yet 
she may be quite unable to give definite figures. 

The figures here given approximate the truth as 
nearly as is possible under the conditions of the 
experiment. 

According to the report of the teachers, the time 
spent upon illustrative work, over and above the 
regular period devoted to the subject, did not, in 
any case, exceed one hour per week. Even this 
excess was for only part of the time. The report 
states further that, in half the instances, the frac- 
tion of an hour so used consisted of time not included 
in the regular school period. 

These conditions reduce the amount of extra 
time required for the work to so small a figure that 
it is scarcely worth considering ; but, if it is con- 



208 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

sidered at all, it is, according to the report of the 
teachers, fully justified by the increased interest of 
the pupils in their work. 

These facts justify the conclusion that illustrative 
handwork may be used as a method of study and 
recitation without increasing the amount of time 
allotted to the subject. 

(3) Concerning the value of illustrative methods : 

The problem stipulates that the time spent upon 
illustrative work must be profitably used. The ex- 
tent to which this was accomplished is indicated in 
the answers to questions VI, VII, and VIII of the 
Report of Teachers. The statement concerning 
failures also has a slight bearing upon this point. 

The statements of the teachers show that the 
work had a tendency to increase interest in the 
subjects illustrated, in reading for information re- 
lated to these subjects, and in preparing the work 
in more artistic form than that used before these 
methods were introduced. 

These statements indicate also, though as yet 
there are no reliable statistics to prove it, that the 
teachers are strongly inclined to the belief that 
illustrative methods help indifferent and backward 
pupils to greater interest and better understanding 
than are common under the usual methods. The 
statement concerning failures, so far as it bears 
upon this point, upholds the opinion of the teachers. 
So many other factors enter into the general averages 



WITH SUMMARY 209 

upon which promotions are based, that very little 
importance can be attached to these figures as evi- 
dence concerning the value of illustrative methods. 
There is, however, ample evidence of trustworthy 
nature to warrant the conclusion that illustrative 
methods are not only possible in the ordinary school- 
room, but that they are also profitable. 




Fig. 91. — Dutch Home Life. Grade 4 A. Franklin, Ind. 

(4) Concerning the training of teachers : 

The necessity for technical training on the part of 

the teacher is proportionate to the emphasis to be 

placed upon technical accuracy in the work to be 

done. 

In illustrative methods, such as herein described, 

technical training on the part of the teacher is not 



2IO ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

essential. This is so for two reasons : First, since 
the emphasis is placed upon effect, the structures are 
for the most part of temporary nature and do not 
require technical accuracy ; second, the placing of 
emphasis upon the value of the work as a means of 
self-expression, demands that the pupil shall be 
allowed to find his own way to a very great extent 
rather than that he shall be expected to follow 
definite instructions. 

These considerations seem to justify the conclusion 
that technical training for the teacher, though of 
obvious advantage, is in no degree essential to the 
successful use of illustrative methods. 

(5) Concerning forms of illustration : 

During the course of the experiments certain in- 
teresting facts developed concerning the various 
forms of illustration. 

Poster making proved to be a most helpful and 
interesting medium through which the children 
could show, in a comprehensive way, the main 
ideas they had gained from their study. The 
process interested them, and, at the same time, 
helped to fix the facts more firmly in their minds. 
Poster making proved to be especially well suited 
to reviews as a means of gathering the important 
facts together, in both history and geography. It 
also brought about a marked improvement in spac- 
ing and lettering, which was due rather to the ability 
of the pupils to see the value of good work in 



REPORT OF TEACHERS, WITH SUMMARY 211 

these particulars than to the urging of the teacher. 
The posters made these values self-evident. 

Illustrated booklets proved to be a strong incentive 
to good work in composition, both in quantity and 
quality. In a series of Hero Books, for example, 
each pupil chose to write about a greater number of 
heroes than when the ordinary method was used. 
It was felt that the book must be made worthy of 
its name. In a set of Tree Studies containing 
sketches and descriptions of common trees, which 
were not examined by the teacher until completed, 
over one-fourth the number were without errors in 
spelling and punctuation. In these respects, how- 
ever, special emphasis had been laid upon individual 
responsibility. The making of the booklets lifted 
composition to a higher level of permanence and 
dignity. It made it seem more worth while to the 
pupils to put energy into their preparation ; greater 
effort was made to have something worth saying, 
and to say it well. The use of illustrations added 
still further to the interest of the work. 

In sandtable illustrations, the tendency during 
the first year was toward elaborate representations 
and a desire to get something which looked well 
when finished, the novelty of the work appealing 
to both teachers and pupils. During the second 
year there was a greater willingness on the part of 
the teachers to use the sandtable chiefly for very 
temporary illustration which could be made during 



212 



ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 



the recitation to illustrate some topic under im- 
mediate discussion, and there was also a greater 
readiness to be satisfied when the points were made 
clear without adding superfluous details. 

On the part of the children, the center of interest 
moved forward toward constructions of a better 
type. The temporary and imperfect constructions 




Fig. 92. — Boonesborough Stockade. Grade 5B. Franklin, Ind. 

used on the sandtable awakened a desire to make 
representations which were more perfect models. 

The very temporary and spontaneous type of 
sandtable illustration was conceded by the teachers 
to be of more value than the elaborate representa- 
tions. 

In construction, the children showed a strong 
tendency to improve upon what had been done 
before by themselves and by others. Not only was 



REPORT OF TEACHERS, WITH SUMMARY 213 

a sixth-grade boy unsatisfied with the degree of 
attainment which had satisfied him in the fifth 
grade, but each attempt at representation had very 
obvious defects which the next worker felt a desire 
to correct. During the first year, in making a model 
of the Panama Canal, the general appearance was 
all that was aimed at, but in the second year, in 
two instances, small groups of boys persevered in 
their efforts until the boats were actually lifted up 
and down through the locks. 

These facts point to the very obvious conclusion 
that when normal children are allowed to express 
themselves freely through projects which seem to 
them worth while, they are anxious to secure the 
best results of which they are capable. They are 
able to see and appreciate defects, and are anxious 
to correct them. They are not satisfied to remain 
on a low level of attainment, but strive constantly 
to surpass their own best efforts. 

The evident conclusions to be drawn from the fore- 
going study may be briefly summarized as follows: 

(i) Illustrative methods increase the interest of 
pupils in their work, and may be used without in- 
creasing the time allotted to the subject. 

(2) The inaccuracies incident to the temporary 
nature of illustrative projects do not tend to en- 
courage carelessness, but when coupled with inter- 
esting subject matter tend to awaken a desire to 
produce better results. 



214 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

(3) Technical training on the part of the teacher 
is not essential, though of decided advantage. 

(4) Illustrative handwork may be carried on in 
the ordinary schoolroom at very small expense for 
equipment and material. 



CHAPTER VII 
A COMPELLING MOTIVE 

At the foundation of most of our theories of 
education and discipHne Hes the old psychological 
law, that we enter into vigorously and tend to repeat 
pleasant experiences, and that we avoid as far as 
possible unpleasant experiences. The emphasis 
which we place upon the positive or negative side 
of this proposition makes all the difference between 
the teacher who believes in making things hard in 
school to prepare for the stern duties of life and the 
one who finds Hfe full of joy and beauty, and succeeds 
in helping her pupils to find much of it. 

If we place the chief emphasis upon the negative 
side we see mistakes and their consequences larger 
than anything else. We try to keep the children 
in the straight and narrow path of duty by mak- 
ing it unpleasant for them to walk elsewhere. We 
pronounce '^duty^^ as if it were spelled always in 
capitals and printed in dull gray. We teach by our 
actions that duty is always hard and unpleasant, 
but we conscientiously try to make the consequences 
of neglect of duty more unpleasant still and imagine 
this will develop a high moral standard among our 

215 



2l6 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

pupils. To our sorrow some of them choose the 
present pleasures of the downward road unmindful 
of the future consequences. Small John plays 
truant and goes fishing, though he knows double 
the lost time will be made up at recesses and after 
school at hard work. In spite of our punishments 
and warnings many wrong things still hold a tre- 
mendous power of attraction, and sometimes we 
sigh and wish it were as easy to do right as it is to 
do wrong. We need a compelling motive toward 
right doing which like the music of the Pied Piper 
will be irresistible. 

Since the negative interpretation of the proposi- 
tion does not attain our aims satisfactorily, it be- 
hooves us to study its positive side. If we reverse 
our emphasis and instead of increasing the un- 
pleasant consequences of evil increase the rewards 
of right doing, we are likely to find the compelling 
motive we seek. It sounds well to say virtue is its 
own reward, but the greatest of teachers bade us be 
wise as serpents. The powers of evil are ever at 
work and employ ingenious means to entice young 
feet out of the straight road. We must be at least 
as vigorous and resourceful in defeating their efforts. 
The school must compete, whether it will or no, with 
the picture show, the swimming pool, the busy 
street. These things are not necessarily evils in 
themselves, but the thoughts of them may and will 
form a screen between the pupil's eyes and the book 



A COMPELLING MOTIVE 



217 




2l8 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

we would have him study, unless we are able to 
make the attraction of the topic strong enough to 
overbalance the force of the outside influences. 

If we would do this we must first of all study these 
compelling forces and find out the secret of their 
attraction. Having found it, we must lay hold 
of its power and apply it to good ends. The picture 
show is not bad in itself and its power as an educative 
force is already being set to work in some of our 
progressive schools. These progressive schools are 
also recognizing in the lure of the swimming hole 
the need for physical activity and development, and 
are providing accommodations for physical educa- 
tion. Much more might be done than is done by 
the schools which think themselves too poor to buy 
equipment, if the means at hand were fully de- 
veloped. The teacher who does not know how to 
play will find the study of games and their power a 
paying investment of time and energy. The street, 
above all things else, is the place where things are 
being done. Something is always going on and 
interesting things happen. If we are wise we will 
seek here another compelling motive for the educa- 
tive process. It is not necessary to make stores and 
shops of our classrooms nor to begin over early a 
narrow vocational training, but we must make the 
school a place where things are being done, where 
something is always going on, and where interesting 
things happen. 



A COMPELLING MOTIVE 219 

Many teachers object to projects which break into 
the routine and ''interfere with the work," yet often 
these same projects by their compeUing interest 
make the children work harder and develop faster 
than they ever do through the routine methods. 
Ella Flagg Young is quoted as saying, ''What our 
schools need is more intensity and less extensity." 
Intensity of action is prompted by intensity of 
feeling. Intensity of feehng is seldom coupled 
with that which does not touch our Hves closely. 
It, therefore, behooves us to study into the lives of 
the children and find where their thoughts live and 
what activities make a compelHng appeal. We 
shall then know where to look for motive power. 

If, instead of emphasizing the dire consequences 
which befall the evildoer, we can make the conse- 
quences of right behavior so attractive that they 
compel attention, the battle is won in a great major- 
ity of cases. For the few that are left, the way of 
the transgressor is apt to be hard enough if the 
offender is allowed to feel the full weight of the 
consequences of his offense. If we stress the posi- 
tive side of the proposition, we will plan our w^ork 
upon the theory that pleasant experiences will be 
entered into vigorously and will probably be re- 
peated. We will then tie up the experiences which 
are worth repeating with processes which are fas- 
cinating enough to inspire vigorous effort. 

The Industrial- Arts Magazine quotes George H. 



220 illustrati\'t: handwork 

Knox as saying: ''The real difference between those 
who succeed and those who fail is, the one thinks 
he can and the other thinks he cannot. The one 
discovers himself and the other does not. The one 
learns that he can do things and the idea arouses, 
thrills, inspires him ; the other thinks that all great 
things were intended for some one else, so he misses 
the great experience, the great trials, and the great 
rewards." 

The projects outlined in this book are offered in 
the sincere hope that they may suggest a compelling 
motive for work in the middle grades, and help to 
overcome the lure of the busy world outside of 
school, which attracts so many before they are pre- 
pared to meet its demands. It is hoped that through 
the provision of simple, yet interesting and thought- 
provoking occupations, which may be carried on in 
any school by any teacher, the liveliest boys may 
find school the happiest place they know, the timid 
children may discover themselves and know the 
joy of successful effort, and that each and all, both 
in school and out, may find the full measure of life's 
richest experiences. 



REFERENCES FOR CLASSROOM USE 

The Eskimo Twins Perkins 

The Japanese Twins Perkins 

The Dutch Twins Perkins 

The Mexican Twins Perkins 

The Irish Twins Perkins 

Around the World Series Tolman 

How We Are Fed Chamberlain 

How We Are Clothed Chamberlain 

How We Are Sheltered Chamberlain 

How We Travel Chamberlain 

How the World Is Fed Carpenter 

How the World Is Clothed Carpenter 

How the World Is Housed Carpenter 

The Farmer and His Friends .... Tappan 

Diggers in the Earth Tappan 

Makers of Many Things Tappan 

Travelers and Traveling Tappan 

The Continents and Their People . . . Chamberlain 

Geographical Readers Winslow 

The World and Its People series . . . Knapp 

Geographical Readers Carpenter 

The World at Work series Dutton 

From Trail to Railway Brigham 

The Bird Woman Chandler 

Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers . . . Holbroke 

Hans, The Eskimo ScandHn 

Eskimo Land Hawks 

Industrial Studies Allen 

221 



222 ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK 

Representative Cities of the United 

States Hotchkiss 

People of Other Lands .... Shaw 

American Inventors and Inventions Mowly 

The Youth's Companion series . . Lane 

Series of Readers Dopp 

How Man Conquered Nature . . Reynolds 

Builders of Our Country .... Southworth 

The Wheat Industry Bengtson and Griffith 

The Philippines McClintic 

The Doers Hopkins 

Textiles Dooly 

Three Industrial Nations .... Blaich 

New Introductory Geography . . Tarr and McMurry 

New Complete Geography . . . Tarr and McMurry 

Essentials of Geography .... BrighamandMcFarland 

Seven Little Sisters Andrews 

Ten Boys Andrews 

Strange People Starr 

Stories from Northern Myths . . E. K. Baker 

Story of the Romans Guerber 

Story of the Greeks Tappan 

Japan in Pictures Sladen 

The Snow Baby Peary 

Docas, The Indian Boy .... Sneddan 

Our Country's Story Tappan 

Children of the CHff Wiley and Edick 

Railroad Guides 
Steamship Catalogs 

References for Teachers 

Bagley — The Educative Process. 

Ballard — Handwork as an Educational Medium. 

Bennett — The Place of Manual Arts in Education. 



REFERENCES FOR CLASSROOM USE 223 

Bone — The Service of the Hand in the School. 

Charters — Methods of Teaching. 

Dewey — The School and the Child ; School and Society ; 
The Child and the Curriculum ; Schools of To-morrow. 

Dopp — The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. 

O'Shea — Dynamic Factors in Education. 

Row — The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and In- 
dustries. 

Russell — The School and Industrial Life. Educational 
Review, December 1909. 

Sargent — Fine and Industrial Arts. 

Scott — Social Education. 

Sykes and Bonser — Industrial Education. Teachers Col- 
lege Record, September, 191 1. 
Educational Review, October, 191 1. 



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Smith All the Children of All the People 

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Sneath and Hodges . Moral Training in the School and 

Home .80 

Starch Educational Measurements . . 1.25 

Experiments in Educational Psy- 
chology 90 

Strayer A Brief Course in the Teaching 

Process 1,25 

Stray er and Norsworthy How to Teach 1.30 

Strayer and Thomdike Education Administration. Quan- 
titative Studies 2.00 

Taylor Handbook of Vocational Education i.oo 

Principles and Methods of Teach- 
ing Reading .90 

Thorndike .... Education: A First Book . . . 1.25 

Vandewalker. . . . Kindergarten, The, in American 

Education 1.25 

Ward The Montessori Method and the 

American School 1.25 

Wayland How to Teach American History i.io 



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